# This file contains all 52 Indonesian testsuites, in the order given
# in the following table.  Example numbers are restarted at the
# beginning of each file.

# 1. Basic noun phrases
# 2. Reflexives
# Relative clauses
# 3. Basic relative clause patterns
# 4. Defining, topic-comment, prepositional, and locative relative clauses
# 5. Numbers and number phrases
# Prepositions and prepositional phrases
# 6. Locative and nonlocative prepositions
# 7. Prepositions pada, di, oleh
# Basic verbal clauses
# 8. Intransitive, transitive, ditransitive verbs
# 9. Tense/aspect: sudah, telah, sedang, masih, lagi, tengah, akan
# 10. Aspect: bakal, baru, pernah
# 11. Modals
# 12. Voice
# 13. Basic copular clauses
# 14. The verb "ada": existential, possessive, and emphatic uses
# Basic non-verbal clauses
# 15. Noun clauses, copulas adalah and ialah, adjective clauses, quantity clauses, prepositional clauses
# 16. Adjective clauses
# Nominal clauses
# 17. Simple nominal clauses
# 18. Nominalised relative clauses
# 19. Predicate nominalisation
# Clausal word order
# 20. Basic word order
# 21. Word order in copular clauses
# 22. Topic-comment clauses
# 23. Identifying clauses
# Double object constructions
# 24. Double object constructions with -kan and with no suffix
# 25. Double object constructions with -i and -kan, part 1
# 26. Double object constructions with -i and -kan, part 2
# 27. Double object constructions and passive voice, file 1
# 28. Double object constructions and passive voice, file 2
# 29. Double object constructions and passive voice, file 3
# Complement clauses
# 30. Complementiser "bahwa"
# 31. Complementiser "untuk"
# 32. Complementiser "agar" and "supaya"
# 33. Negation
# Questions
# 34. Questions with apa(kah), siapa(kah), and interrogative suffix -kah
# 35. Yes-no questions, tag questions, short answers
# 36. Specific questions: Apa, siapa, berapa, kenapa and mengapa
# 37. Specific questions with mana, di mana, ke mana, dari mana, bagaimana, bilamana, kapan; indirect questions
# 38. Imperatives
# 39. Ellipsis
# Coordination and subordination
# 40. Coordinating conjunctions
# 41. Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of time and condition
# 42. Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of reason, purpose, extent
# 43. Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of concession, resemblance, contrast; clauses with no subordinator
# Sentential adjuncts
# 44. Adverbs of manner, adjectives used as adverbs, reduplicated adjectives, adverbs with dengan and secara
# 45. Adverbial words, adverbs derived from adjectives, numbers as adverbs
# 46. Temporal adjuncts: clock time
# 47. Temporal adjuncts: days of the week and their parts
# 48. Temporal adjuncts: months, years, times of day, reduplication of parts of day
# 49. Temporal adjuncts: prepositional phrases indicating specific time, phrases indicating relative time
# 50. Adverbial sentence linkers indicating a connection between two sentences
# 51. Adjuncts of location
# 52. Focusing adjuncts


#Basic noun phrases


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Simple common nouns
#Demonstratives with nouns
#Possessive NP
#Possessive clitics/definite marker
#Possessive clitic with NP possessor
#Possessor and demonstrative
#Possessor with clitic
#Adjunct PP
#Multiword noun
#Title and name
#Proper name and demonstrative
#Name with title and demonstrative
#Prepositional modifiers, with names and multiwords


#simple common noun

#1

DP: buku

#book
#the book

#proper name

#2

DP: Hasan

#Hasan
#Hasan

#Demonstrative with Noun

#Demonstratives always follow a head noun.


#3

DP: buku itu

#book that
#that book

#If a demonstrative is placed before a head noun it will form a clause.

#4

DP: Itu buku

#that book
#that is a book

#see also examples in the non-verbal clauses file (file 15).


#demonstrative can also stand alone

#5

DP: itu

#that
#that

#6

DP: Ini

#that
#that


#possessive NP.

#Possessors always follow the possessum. 

#7

DP: gedung sekolah

#building school
#school building

#Ungrammatical:

#8

DP: sekolah gedung (0! 0 0 0)

#school building
#school building

#There is no morphological marking in this constructions. There are,
#however possessive clitics for third person, first and second person
#singular.

#possessive clitic/definite marker.  

#9

DP: rumahnya

#house-3POSS
#His/her/its house

#10

DP: rumahku

#house-1SG.POSS
#my house

#11

DP: rumahmu

#house-2SG.POSS
#your house


#NP possessor can follow possesive clitics.

#possessive clitic plus NP possessor (ditto)

#12

DP: mobilnya guru

#car-3POSS teacher
#the teacher's car (a special type of car for teachers)
#the car that belongs to the teacher.


#It seems that nya does not necessarily corefer with the 
#possessor's number. Thus, we could have both singular as in 12
#and plural as the following example illustrates:

#13

DP: mobilnya guru-guru

#car-3POSS teacher-REDUP
#the teachers's car (a special type of car for teachers)
#the car that belongs to the teachers.



#When a possessive phrase is combined with a demonstrative, 
#the demonstrative will follow the possessive phrase. 

#14

DP: rumah guru itu

#house teacher that
#that teacher's house


#The position of the demonstrative after the possessor also applies
#to free pronoun possessors.

#possessor and demonstratives

#15

DP: lonceng saya itu

#bell 1SG that
#my bell is that

#possessor possessed by 3p pronoun

#when the demonstrative is placed before the possessive phrase
#it changes the construction into a predicate nominal. 


#16

DP: ini buku saya

#this book 1SG
#this is my book

#See also examples 4, 29, and 30.


#17

DP: tas guru dia

#bag teacher 3SG
#his teacher's bag


#possessor with clitics nya, ku, mu

#18

DP: mobil gurunya

#car teacher.3POSS
#his/her teacher's car

#Note that when nya (3POSS) is placed after mobil 'car'  the meaning is
#changed as already shown in (12)

#19

DP: mobil guruku

#car teacher.1SG.POSS
#my teacher's car

#20

DP: mobil gurumu

#car teacher.2SG.POSS
#your teacher's car

#When there is a full NP possessor, ku (1SG.POSS) and mu (2SG.POSS) cannot 
#be placed immediately after a possessum.


#Ungrammatical:

#21

DP: mobilku guru  (0! 0 0 0)

#car-1SG.POSS teacher
#my teacher's car


#Ungrammatical:

#22

DP: mobilmu guru   (0! 0 0 0)

#car-2SG.POSS teacher
#your teacher's car

#adjunct PP

#23

DP: surat dari universitas

# letter from university
# a letter from the university


# multiword Noun


#24

DP: kantor pusat

#office centre
#central office


#title+name

#25

DP: Tuan Nasution

#Mr Nasution
#Mr Nasution


#title without a name

#26

DP: Tuan

#Mr
#Mr


#Proper names can be followed by demonstratives.


#27

DP: Nasution ini

#Nasution this
#this Nasution


#name with title + demonstratives

#28

DP: Bapak Nasution ini

#sir Nasution this 
#This Mr Nasution

#Similar to example 16, when a demonstrative is placed before a proper 
#name it will form a predicate nominal construction.

#29

DP: Ini Nasution  

#this  Nasutiom
#this is Nasution


#30

DP: Ini Bapak Nasution 

# this sir Nasution  
#This is Mr Nasution


#two prepositional modifiers, with names and multiwords

#31

DP: surat dari kantor pusat dari Saudara Nasution

#letter from office central from brother Nasution
#a letter from brother Nasution from the central office 









#Reflexive phrases


#This document presents reflexive phrases formed on the basis of the reflexive 
#form diri 'self'.
 
#Different grammatical categories can be created with the reflexive form diri.

#In the document we show how nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs derive
#from the reflexive form diri.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

#Nouns
#Adjectives
#Verbs
#Adverbs 


#NOUNS

#In certain compound nouns noun diri usually forms part of the compound noun.

#1

DP: harga diri

#price self
#self respect


#2

DP: jati diri

#identity self
#identity


#3

DP: kesucian diri

#kE-holy-AN self
#self holiness

#The structure of compound noun with diri is N + diri.


#Ungrammatical:


#4

diri harga (0! 0 0 0)

#self price
#self respect


#PRONOUNS

#English uses -self: myself, yourself,
#himself, themselves, etc.


#Diri forms part of pronouns.

#Structure : diri + pronoun.


#5

DP: diri saya

#self 1SG
#myself


#6

DP: dirimu

#self-2SG
#yourself


#7

diri mereka

#self 3PL
#themselves


#Ungrammatical:

#8

DP: mereka diri (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL self
#themselves



#ADJECTIVES


#9

AP: Seorang diri

#one-CLASS self
#alone


#10

Dia seorang diri

#3SG one-CLASS self
#He is alone


#Most adjectives use the word sendiri 'self'


#11

AP: Mereka sendiri

#3PL self
#themselves


#12

AP: Saya sendiri

#1SG self
#Myself


#Examples (11) and (12) can also mean 'They themselves' and 'I myself'.



#Diri can combine with sendiri. It is used to add emphasis on the pronoun.
#Quinn (2001 : 707). 


#13

DP: diri sendiri

#self self
#yourself, himself, themselves, etc.

#The structure of diri and sendiri in combination with pronouns is:
#diri + Pron + sendiri


#14

DP: diri mereka sendiri

#self 3PL self
#themselves (not other people).


#15

DP: diri saya sendiri

#self SG self
#myself


#VERBS

#Diri 'self' occurs as the object of a transitive verb when
#the object is the same as the subject.


#The following is a list of high frequency verbs 
#that are commonly found with diri as the object. 

#Verb base forms:

#jaga 'keep' 	    
#kenal 'recognise'  
#abdi 'servant'     
#lari 'run'	    
#undur 'step backward' 
#lolos 'pass, free from something'
#tarik 'pull'
#calon 'candidate'
#khusus 'special'
#serah 'give'
#bunuh 'kill'
#bawa 'bring'
#buka 'open'
#jual 'sell'
#tawar'offer'
#tahan 'hold'
#lepas 'release'
#libat 'involve'
#pisah 'separate'
#anggap 'regard'
#salah 'mistake'
#biasa 'usual'
#tarik 'pull'
#daftar 'register'
#sesuai 'ajust'
#rendah 'low'

#These verbs usually take prefix MEN- and suffix -kan.


#The following verbs take prefix MEN + base.verb. 

#menjaga diri 'to look after someone's self'
#membawa diri 'to expose someone's self'
#membuka diri 'to be open'
#menjual diri 'to sell someone's dignity'
#menarik diri 'to withdraw'
#membunuh diri 'to commit suicide'
#menahan diri 'to be patient'


#EXAMPLES:

#16

Mereka tidak menjaga diri baik-baik

#3PL NEG MEN-keep self good-REDUP
#They did not look after themselves well


#17

Anita pintar membawa diri dalam pertemuan-pertemuan semacam itu

#Anita clever MEN-bring self in PER-meet-AN-REDUP one-kind that
#Anita cleverly exposed herself in such meetings


#18

Kami membuka diri untuk menerima saran dan kritikan

#1PL.EXCL MEN-open self to MEN-receive suggestion and critic-AN
#We are open to receive suggestions and criticism


#19

Ibu Clinton menarik diri dari pencalonan presiden

#mother Clinton MEN-pull self from PEN-candidate-AN president
#Mrs Clinton withdrew herself from the presidential candidacy


#Below is the verbs that take prefix MEN + base.verb + KAN.

#mengkhususkan diri 'to specialise 
#menyerahkan diri 'to surrender'
#memperkenalkan diri (kepada) 'introduce someone's self (to)'
#menawarkan diri 'to offer someone's self'
#mengabdikan diri 'to serve (make someone's self servant')
#melarikan diri 'to escape'
#mengundurkan diri  'to step back, resign'
#meloloskan diri 'to escape'
#melepaskan diri (dari) 'to free someone's self (from)'
#melibatkan diri (dalam) 'to involve somone's self (in)'
#memisahkan diri (dari) 'to separate someone's self (from)'
#menganggap diri (sebagai) 'to regard somone's self (as)
#menyalahkan diri (karena) 'to blame someone's self (because of)
#membiasakan diri (dengan) 'to learn to get used to'
#mendaftarkan diri (di, ke, untuk) 'to register, enroll'
#menyesuaikan diri (dengan) 'to adapt, to fit in'


#20

Pak Bejo memperkenalkan diri kepada siswa-siswi baru

#sir Bejo MEN-PER-recognise-KAN self to student-REDUP new
#Mr Bejo introduced himself to new students


#21

Penjahat meloloskan diri dari penjara

#PEN-cruel ME-release-KAN self from prison 
#The criminal escaped from the prison


#22

Saya mengundurkan diri dari posisi saya sebagai ketua kelas

#1SG MEN-step.back-KAN self from position as chairman class
#I resigned from the position as chairman of the class


#Reflexive phrase can be the subject or the object of a sentence.


#23

Diri mereka sendiri penuh dengan kebohongan

#self 3PL self full with KE-lie-AN
#Themselves are full of lies


#24

Kamu dapat menolong dirimu sendiri dengan peralatan itu

#2SG can MEN-help self-2SG self with PER-tool-AN that
#You can help yourself with the equipment


#ADVERBS

#Diri occurs as and adverb complement with few intransitive verbs.

#The three most frequent verbs are:


#25

VP: berdiam diri 

#BER-silent self
#to say nothing, to refrain from speaking, to keep quiet


#26

VP: percaya diri

#trust self
#to be self confident, to have confidence in someone's self


#27

VP: tahu diri

#know self
#to know your place, to be modest and acknowledge the status and achievement
#of others.


#28

Dia berdiam diri saja di situ

#3SG BER-silent self only at that.place
#He was just quiet at that place


#29

Ujian ini akan mudah karena dia sangat percaya diri

#test-AN this will easy because 3SG very trust self
#This test will be easy because he is very self confident


#30

Saya tahu diri, dia itu guru saya

#1SG know self, 3SG that teacher 1SG
#I know my place, he is my teacher 
#(Implied meaning: I would not do anything that disrespects the teacher, or 
#the teacher knows more than I do, etc.).



#References: 


#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp.707).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp.205-207) 








 

#Basic relative clause pattern


#This document presents relative clauses which are formed with
#the relative marker yang.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

#Subject relative clauses
#Object relative clauses
#Possessive relative clauses
#Relative clauses as nominals

#The description of relative clauses in this document is based on Dardjowidjojo (1978),
#Macdonald and Dardjowidjojo (1967).


#Subject relative clauses

#Examples (1) to (3) below are adapted from Dardjowidjojo (1978). 

#1

#Main sentence:

Penari itu memegang peranan sebagai Romo

#PE-dance that MEN-hold role-AN as Romo
#The dancer plays the role of Romo


#2

#Sentence to be made relative clause:

Dia sedang menyanyi

#3SG in.the.process.of MEN-sing
#He is singing


#Sentence (3) below is the combination of sentence (1) and (2). Note that
#the subject of sentence (2) is deleted because it is the same as the subject
#of sentence (1).


#3

#Relative clause:

Penari yang sedang menyanyi itu memegang peranan sebagai Romo

#PE-dance REL in.the.process.of MEN-sing that MEN-hold role-AN as Romo
#The dancer who is singing plays the role of Romo


#Note that the word order doesn't change in subject relativization.
#The subject remains in the same position (at the beginning of the sentence).
#The sentence to be made into a relative clause is inserted to the sentence 
#following the subject NP.
#In example (4) sentence (1) becomes the relative clause and sentence (2) is
#the main sentence. 

#4

#Relative clause:

Penari yang memegang peranan sebagai Romo itu sedang menyanyi

#PE-dance REL MEN-hold role-AN as Romo  that in.the.process.of MEN-sing  
#The dancer who plays the role of Romo is singing 


#Note that the Men-verbs do not change.



#Object relative clauses


#5

Buku itu ditulis oleh Presiden Sukarno

#book that DI-write by president Sukarno
#The book was written by President Sukarno


#6

Mereka meminjam buku itu

#3PL MEN-borrow book that
#They borrowed the book


#Note that the subject in (5) is the same as the object in (6).


#7

Buku yang mereka pinjam itu ditulis oleh Presiden Sukarno

#book REL 3PL borrow that DI-write by president Sukarno
#The book which they borrowed was written by President Sukarno

#In example (7) sentence (6) is used as a relative clause modifying the
#subject NP of sentence (5). The object of sentence (6) is deleted because
#it is the same NP as the subject of sentence (5).


#Note that the verb of the sentence changes into its base form. This is a typical 
#process of passive voice according to Dardjowidjojo's definition, although this is not
#an instance of passive voice. See file 12 for more information on voice.


#In sentence (8) the subject NP of the passivized relative clause is deleted because
#it is the same as the object NP of the main clause.  


#8

Mereka meminjam buku yang ditulis oleh Presiden Sukarno

#3PL MEN-borrow book REL DI-write by president Sukarno
#They borrowed the book that President Sukarno wrote



#The position of subject and object relativizations also occur in
#interrogative sentence formation. Observe the following examples.


#9

Pak Dimara menanam pohon kelapa

#sir Dimara MEN-plant tree coconut
#Mr Dimara planted a coconut tree
 

#Sentence (10) can be changed into an interrogative sentence by replacing
#the object with the question word apa 'what'. Note that question word
#apa is usually used for questioning non-human subject/object.


#10

Pak Dimara menanam apa?

#sir Dimara MEN-plant what?
#What did Mr Dimara plant?


#If we form a relative clause modifier of 'pohon kelapa' (coconut tree) 
#then we need the relative marker yang to be inserted into the sentence. The verb of the
#sentence will change into its base form. This process is similar to example
#(7). Observe sentence (11).


#11

Pohon kelapa yang Pak Dimara tanam 

#tree coconut REL sir Dimara plant
#The coconut tree which Mr Dimara planted


#The same process also applies to the question word apa. If we move the question
#word apa in (10) to the beginning of the sentence  then we must have the relative marker
#yang to follow the question word apa. Note that the structure and the verb 
#morphology of sentence (11) is the same as sentence (12).  More research is needed on 
#this construction.

 
#12

Apa yang Pak Dimara tanam?

#what REL sir Dimara plant?
#What did Mr Dimara plant?


#Sentence (11) and (12) will be ungrammatical if the relative marker yang is
#removed.


#Ungrammatical:

#13

Pohon kelapa Pak Dimara tanam (0! 0 0 0)

#tree coconut sir Dimara plant
#The coconut tree which Mr Dimara planted


#Ungrammatical:

#14

Apa Pak Dimara tanam? (0! 0 0 0)

#what REL sir Dimara plant?
#What did Mr Dimara plant?


#A similar process also occurs with the question word siapa 'who'.
#Siapa is used to question human subject. Unlike apa, siapa can occur
#at the beginning and at the end of a sentence. When it occurs at the 
#beginning of the sentence it usually has the relative marker yang.


#Examples:


#15

Pak Kadir mengancam anak itu

#sir Kadir MEN-threat child that
#Mr Kadir threatened the child


#16

Siapa yang mengancam anak itu?

#who REL MEN-threat child that?
#Who threatened the child?


#Yang can be omitted from sentence (16).


#17

Siapa mengancam anak itu?

#who MEN-threat child that?
#Who threatened the child?



#However, most Indonesians would prefer sentence (16) to sentence (17).


#When siapa replaces object of the sentence it does not require the relative
#marker yang.


#18

Pak Kadir mengancam siapa?

#sir Kadir MEN-threat who?
#Who did Mr Kadir threaten? 


#For more examples and information about question word apa and siapa see
#specific questions: apa, siapa, berapa, kenapa and mengapa in file 36.
 


#Possessor relativization


#Below are two examples of relative clause relativizing possessors 
#from Dardjowidjojo.


#19

#Main sentence:

Wayang itu bernama Petruk

#shadow.character that BER-name Petruk
#That shadow play character is called Petruk

#20

#Sentence to be made relative clause:

Hidung dia panjang

#nose 3SG long
#His nose is long


#21

#Relative clause:

Wayang yang hidungnya panjang itu bernama Petruk

#shadow.character REL nose-3SG long that BER-name Petruk
#The shadow play character whose nose is long is called Petruk


#22

#Main sentence:

Satria itu sangat gagah

#knight that very handsome
#The knight is very handsome


#23

#Sentence to be made relative clause:

Istri dia diculik raksasa

#wife 3SG DI-kidnap giant
#His wife was kidnapped by a ginat


#24

#Relative clause:

Satria yang istrinya diculik raksasa itu sangat gagah

#knight REL wife 3SG DI-kidnap giant that very handsome
#The knight whose wife was kidnapped by a giant is very handsome


#Structure of possessive relativization:

#Possessor + yang + noun possessed + nya + VP + (DET ini or itu)


#Observe (21) and (24). In these examples determiner itu occurs at the end
#of the relative clause and closes the whole NP. 

#The meaning of sentences (21) is unambiguous but the meaning of sentence 
#(24) can be ambiguous. The problem is that beside the head noun there is also
#a noun preceding the determiner itu. Thus, there is a confusion here as to which
#noun the determiner itu modifies. A different interpretation is illustrated 
#in (25). 


#25

#Relative clause:

Satria yang istrinya diculik raksasa itu sangat gagah

#knight REL wife 3SG DI-kidnap giant that very handsome
#The knight whose wife was kidnapped by that giant is very handsome


#Example (28) shows a relative clause without determiner ini or itu.


#26

#Main sentence:

Pak Jembise memimpin rapat senat

#sir Jembise MEN-lead meeting senate
#Mr Jembise led a senate meeting

#27

#Sentence to be made relative clause:

Mobil Pak Jembise merah

#car sir Jembise red
#Mr Jembise's car is red

#28

#Relative clause:

Pak Jembise yang mobilnya merah memimpin rapat senat

#sir Jembise REL car-POSS red MEN-lead meeting senate
#Mr Jembise whose car is red led a senate meeting


#Relative clause as nominals

#Macdonald and Dardjowidjojo state that any predicative preceded by
#yang produces a nominalization of that predicate.

#Below are some examples adapted from Mackie and Dardjowidjojo (1967:135):


#29

VP: pergi

#go
#to go

#30

DP: yang pergi

#REL go
#The one who goes

#31

VP: membelikan saya buku itu kemarin

#MEN-buy-KAN 1SG book that yesterday
#to buy me the book yesterday


#32

DP: yang membelikan saya buku itu kemarin

#REL MEN-buy-KAN 1SG book that yesterday
#The one who bought me the book yesterday


#33

AP: biru

#blue
#blue


#34

DP: yang biru

#REL blue
#The one which is blue


#35

PP: di kamar lain

#in room other
#in the other room

#36

DP: yang di kamar lain

#REL in room other
#the one who is in the other room

#37

DP: ini

#this
#this

#38

DP: yang ini

#REL this
#This one

#39

DP: itu

#that
#that

#40

DP: yang itu

#REL that
#that one


#Note that determiner ini or itu always follows yang.


#41

Yang ini merusak kesehatan kita

#Rel this ME-destroy KE-health-AN 1PL.INCL
#This one destroys our health


#42

DP: Yang merusak kesehatan kita ini

#Rel ME-destroy KE-health-AN 1PL.INCL this 
#This one which destroys our health

#In (41) ini modifies yang and in (42) it modifies yang and closes the whole
#NP.

#The meaning will change if we place ini before yang. Observe (43).


#43

Ini yang merusak kesehatan kita

#this Rel ME-destroy KE-health-AN 1PL.INCL  
#This is the one that destroys our health



#References: 

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978 (pp. 206-208, 217-219, 
#236-237, 240-241).   

#Macdonald, R. Ross and Soenjono Darjowidjojo, A Student's Reference Grammar of Modern 
#Formal Indonesian, 1967 (pp. 135-138). 

#Sarumpaet, Jan,P. The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia,
#Sahata Publications, Melbourne, 1977 (pp.26).

#Sarumpaet, J.P. and J.A.C. Mackie. Introduction to Bahasa Indonesia,
#Melbourne University Press, 1966 (pp.98-111.







#Defining, topic-comment, prepositional and locative relative clauses 


#This document contains different types of relative clauses of Indonesian
#based on Sneddon's (1996) classification.

#Sneddon divides Indonesian relative clauses into four different types:
#Defining relative clauses;
#Topic Comment relative clauses;
#Prepositional relative clauses;and
#Locative relative clauses


#Defining relative clauses

#Most of the examples of defining relative clauses have been presented in
#the basic relative clauses pattern (see file 3). An example of a defining 
#relative clause is illustrated below:

#1

#Main sentence:

Gadis itu cantik sekali

#girl that beautiful very
#The girl is very beautiful


#2

#Sentence to be made relative clause:

Gadis itu bekerja di warung makan

#girl that BER-work in shop eat
#The girl works in the restaurant


#3

#Relative clause:

Gadis yang bekerja di warung makan itu cantik sekali

#girl REL BER-work in shop eat that beautiful very 
#The girl who works in the restaurant is very beatiful


#Sneddon suggests that the relative clause is incorporated or embedded 
#within the noun phrase by deletion of its subject which is similar to the 
#head noun of the embedding phrase and by adding yang before the head noun.

#The verbs of the relative clause can be active or passive.


#4

DP: Orang yang mencuri sepeda saya itu

#person REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG that
#The person who stole my bicycle

#5

DP: Sepeda saya yang dicuri orang itu

#bicycle 1SG REL DI-steal person that
#My bicycle which was stolen (by) that person
#My bicycle which the person stole



#Relative clauses can derive from verbal (examples 3-5) or non-verbal (examples
#6- 8) relative clauses.


#Adjective relative clause:


#6

DP: taman yang indah

#garden REL beautiful
#a beautiful garden


#7

DP: Saya yang kecil ini

#1SG REL small this
#I who am small;  

#Example (7) is taken from Sneddon (1996:169). It shows that adjective 
#relative clause can modify a personal pronoun.


#Prepositional relative clause:

#8

Kolam renang yang dibelakang rumah

#pond swim REL at-behind house
#Swimming pool which is behind the house


#Noun relative clause:


#9

Bapak Melianus Maryen yang bupati Biak itu

#sir Melianus Maryen REL regent Biak that
#Mr Melianus Maryen who is the regent of Biak


#Indonesian allows several relative clauses within one noun phrase.


#10

Sekolah yang dipimpin orang asing yang dari Amerika itu kualitasnya baik

#school REL DI-lead person foreign from America that quality-3SG good
#The quality of the school which is led by a foreigner who (comes) from America is good


#Example (10) has a verbal and and a prepositional relative clause. The verbal clause
#modifies the head noun of the embedding noun phrase. The prepositional clause 
#modifies a noun phrase within the relative clause.


#Topic-comment relative clauses
#Sneddon divides topic-comment relative clauses into two types:
#Possessor topic-comment relative clauses;
#Object topic-comment relative clauses.


#Possessor topic-comment relative clauses


#Example (11) is a typical possessor topic-comment relative clause.


#11

Orang yang rambutnya keriting itu
 

#person REL hair-POSS curly that
#The person whose hair is curly


#Examples (12) and (13) show how orang itu 'the person' in (11) becomes
#the topic.


#12

Rambut orang itu keriting

#hair person that curly
#The person's hair is curly


#13

Orang itu rambutnya keriting

#person that hair-POSS curly
#(As for) the person, his hair is curly


#The possessor orang itu becomes the topic in 13. Its place is being 
#marked by -nya.


#14

Orang yang rambutnya keriting itu diminta datang ke kantor polisi

#person REL hair-POSS curly that DI-request come to office police
#The person whose hair is curly was requested to come to the police office


#15

Orang yang diminta datang ke kantor polisi itu rambutnya keriting

#person REL DI-request come to office police that hair-POSS curly  
#(Concerning) the person who was requested to come to the police office, his hair is curly


#Sneddon suggests that a topic-comment clause which is inalienably 
#possessed can occur after the predicate.


#Example (16) is taken from Sneddon.

#16

Kawasan yang dipuji kebersihannya ini

#region REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-POSS this
#This region whose cleanliness has been praised


#our interpretation of sentence (16) is different. The topic-comment
#in (16) is not part of the relative clause but is an adjunct.
#Sentence (17) below shows our interpretation of sentence (16).

#17

Kawasan yang dipuji kebersihannya ini

#region REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-POSS this
#This region which has been praised (for) its cleanliness

#The meaning of sentence (16) can be illustrated in (18). Observe that in
#(18) the topic-comment clause occurs immediately after yang.


#18

Kawasan yang kebersihannya dipuji ini

#region REL KE-clean-AN-POSS  DI-praise this
#This region whose cleanliness has been praised


#It seems that in order to modify a possessor a topic-comment relative clause
#must occur immediately after yang as examples (14) and (18) illustrate. 

#See topic-comment clauses in file 22.


#Object topic-comment relative clauses

#19

Tony menceritakan sebuah peristiwa yang mungkin anda sudah mengetahuinya

#Tony MEN-tell.a.story-KAN one-CLASS incident REL perhaps 2SG already MEN-know-i-3SG
#Tony told about an incident which you might have already known


#In (19) sebuah peristiwa 'an incident' is the object of menceritakan 
#'to tell a story' and mengetahui 'to know'. The position of the object is
#marked by -nya.



#Prepositional relative clauses


#20

Gedung yang dibelakangnya ada kolam renang 

#building REL in-behind-POSS BE pond swim
#The building behind which there is a swimming pool


#21

Sebuah tim sepak bola yang didalamnya dia bermain sebagai penjaga gawang

#one-CLASS team kick ball REL AT-inside-POSS 3SG BER-play as PEN-keep goal.post
#A football team in which he played as a goal keeper

#Removing -nya from (21) will cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.


#Ungrammatical:

#22

Sebuah tim sepak bola yang didalam dia bermain sebagai penjaga gawang (0! 0 0 0)

#one-CLASS team kick ball REL AT-inside 3SG BER-play as PEN-keep goal.post
#A football team in which he played as a goal keeper


#Locative relative clauses

#This type of relative clauses uses question word mana 'where' and 
#tempat 'place' which is usually translated as 'where' when used as
#a relative marker.  'Yang' is not used in these relative clauses.


#23

Kota tempat kami tinggal

#town place 1PL.EXCL live
#The town where we lived


#24

Kota ke mana mereka pergi  

#town to where 3PL go
#The city where they went


#25

Rumah sakit di mana mereka dirawat

#house sick in where 3PL DI-treat
#The hospital where they were treated


#26

Negara-negara dari mana para atlet itu berasal

#country-REDUP from where PL.MRK athlete that BER-origin
#The countries where the athletes came from


#When mana is combined with yang the meaning is 'which or which one'.


#27

mana yang jual bensin?

#Where REL sell  petrol?
#Which sells petrol?


#28

Di mana yang jual bensin?

#in where REL sell petrol?
#Which place sells petrol?



#References: 

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London, 1996
#(pp. 169, 278, 285-291)   


#Numbers and number phrases


#Numbers can be definite or indefinite.


#This document only explores the internal structure of cardinal numbers.


#cardinal numbers:

#Units:

#satu 'one'
#dua 'two'
#tiga 'three'
#empat 'four'
#lima 'five
#enam 'six'
#tujuh 'seven'
#delapan 'eight'
#sembilan 'nine'

#Groups:

#puluh 'tens'
#belas 'teens'
#ratus 'hundreds'
#ribu 'thousands'
#juta 'millions
#milyar 'billions'
#triliun 'trillions'


#Group numbers combine with any of the units.


#1

DP: dua puluh

#two tens
#twenty


#2

DP: tiga belas

#three teens
#thirteen


#3

DP: empat ratus

#four hundred
#four hundreds


#4

DP: lima juta

#five millions
#five millions


#In examples 1 - 4, the units follow the group numbers. The order cannot
#be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:


#5

DP: puluh dua (0! 0 0 0)

#tens two
#twenty


#Ungrammatical:

#6

DP: juta lima (0! 0 0 0)

#millions five
#five millions


#For number one prefix se- is used when it is combined with the group numbers.


#7

DP: sepuluh

#se-puluh
#one-tens
#ten


#8

DP: seratus

#se-ratus
#one-hundred
#one hundred


#9

DP: sejuta

#se-juta
#one-millions
#one million


#There is an exception for the use of satu 'one'.
#First, satu 'one' cannot be combined with puluh 'tens',belas 'teens',
#ratus 'hundreds' and ribu 'thousands'. Thus we cannot have the following:


#Ungrammatical:


#10

DP: satu puluh (0! 0 0 0)

#one tens 
#ten


#Ungrammatical:


#11

DP: satu belas (0! 0 0 0)

#one teens
#eleven



#Ungrammatical:


#12


DP: satu ratus (0! 0 0 0)

#one hundreds
#one hundred


#Ungrammatical:


#13


DP: Satu ribu (0! 0 0 0)

#one thousands
#one thousand


#Prefix se- 'one' is used for examples 10 - 13.
 

#Second, satu 'one' is always used in combination with
#milyar 'billions' and triliun 'trillions'.


#14

DP: satu miliar

#one billions
#one billion


#Prefix se- 'one' can combine with miliar 'billions' and triliun 'trillions'.



#Large numbers precede small numbers.


#15

DP: lima puluh dua

#five tens two
#fifty two


#16

DP: seribu sembilan ratus delapan puluh tiga

#one-thousand nine hundred eight tens three
#one thousand nine hundred eighty three



#Small numbers cannot precede large numbers.


#Ungrammatical:


#17

DP: dua lima puluh (0! 0 0 0)

#two five tens
#fifty two


#We can say 17 when we mean 'two fifty cents' but not number fifty two.



#Fractions


#Fractions are formed by combining prefix se-  'one' with tengah 'half'
#and per 'a, for each, per'.


#18

DP: setengah

#one-half
#a half


#19

DP: sepertiga

#one-per-three
#one third



#Full numbers  precede fractions.


#20

DP: Empat setengah

#four one-half
#four and a half


#21


DP: Tiga seperempat

#three one-per-four
#three and a quarter




#In saying the hour setengah will precede the hour.


#22

DP: setengah empat

#one-half four
#half past four


#However seperempat 'a quarter' follows the hour.


#23

DP: tiga seperempat

#three one-per-four
#a quarter past four


#Examples 21 and 23 can be distinguished when we add the word jam 'hour'
#into the phrase.


#24


DP: Tiga seperempat jam

#three one-per-four hour
#three and a quarter hours



#25

jam tiga seperempat

#hour three one-per-four
#It's a quarter past four



#Decimal numbers

#In Bahasa Indonesia the decimal point is written as a comma.


#26

DP: tiga koma empat

#three comma four
#three point four (3,4)


#27


DP: satu koma dua juta

#one comma two millions
#one point two millions (1,2 millions)


#Arithmetic Phrases

#Arithmetic phrases contain two cardinal numbers with an arithmetic
#operational word inserted between the numbers. 

#Operational words that are always used in arithmetic phrases are:

#tambah 'add'
#kurang 'subtract'
#kali 'times'
#bagi 'divide'


#28

DP: lima tambah tujuh

#five add seven
#five plus seven


#29

DP: lima belas bagi tiga

#five teens divide three
#fifteen divided by three


#30

DP: enam kali dua

#six times two
#six times two


#The verb sama dengan  'same as/with' means the same as 'equals' in English
#and is always used in arithmetic clauses.


#31

lima tambah tujuh sama dengan dua belas

#five add seven same with two teens
#five plus seven equals twelve


#32

lima belas bagi tiga sama dengan lima

#five teens divide three same with five
#fifteen divided by three equals five



#Cardinal numbers and modifiers


#Modifiers of cardinal numbers are:


#lebih dari 'more than'
#kurang dari 'less than'
#hampir 'almost'
#genap 'fully, complete'
#sekitar 'about, more or less'
#kurang lebih 'more or less'
#kira-kira 'about'


#Modifiers precede cardinal numbers:


#33

Hampir seratus orang menghadiri perkawinannya

#Almost one-hundreds people MEN-attend-I PER-marry-AN-3SG.POSS
#Nearly one hundred people attended his wedding


#34

Genap tiga tahun usia anak ini

#fully three year age child this
#fully three years is the age of this child.


#Reference:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 184-188) 


#Locative and non-locative propositions 


#This document presents two types of prepositions in Bahasa Indonesia:
#Locative prepositions
#Non-locative prepositions


#Locative Prepositions

#There are three basic locative prepositions:

#di 'at'
#ke 'to'
#dari 'from'


#Prepositions di, ke, and dari express relationships in time or 
#space between things and events.


#The three locative prepositions combine with the locative pronouns. 

#The locative pronouns are:

#sini 'here (near speaker)'
#situ 'there (close)
#sana 'over there (far off)

#The combination of the locative prepositions and the locative pronouns
#results in the following prepositional phrases:


#1


PP: di sini 

#at here
#in here


#2


PP: di situ

#at there
#in there


#3


PP: di sana 

#at over there
#at over there


#4


PP: ke sini 

#to here
#to here


#5


PP: ke situ 

#to there'
#to there


#6


PP: ke sana 

#to over there
#to over there


#7


PP: dari sini

#from here
#from here


#8


PP: dari situ

#from there
#from there


#9

PP: dari sana

#from over there
#from over there



#The locative prepositions also combine with locative nouns.
#The followings are locative nouns in Indonesian:

#atas 'top, above'
#bawah 'below'
#depan 'front'
#muka 'front'
#samping 'side'
#sebelah 'side'
#dalam 'inside'
#luar 'outside'
#antara 'between'
#seberang 'other side'
#belakang 'back'
#tepi 'edge'
#balik 'reverse side
#sekeliling 'around, surrounding'
#sekitar 'area around ....'

#The position of the locative prepositions is the same as examples 1-9. 
#The locative prepositions precede the locative nouns


#di/ke/dari atas 'on/to/from  top, above'


#10

Pesawat Merpati terbang di atas kami

#plane Merpati fly at top 1PL.INCL
#The Merpati airplane flew above us



#di/ke/dari bawah 'at/to/from below, under'


#11

Ada koran di bawah meja

#be newspaper at down table
#There is a newspaper under the table



#di/ke/dari seberang 'on/to/from  other side'


#12

Anak itu berdiri di seberang jalan

#child that stand at other.side road
#That child is standing on the other side of the road 



#The locative prepositions also combine with question word mana 'where':

#di mana 'at where'
#ke mana 'to where'
#dari mana 'from where'



#Non-locative prepositions.

#Some common non-locative prepositions in Indonesian are: 

#untuk, bagi, guna, buat 'for'
#dengan 'with'
#tentang 'about, concerning'
#oleh 'by'
#sampai 'until'
#seperti 'like'
#tanpa 'without'


#There are also some two-word sequences which act just like single-word
#prepositions. Some examples are:

#bersama dengan 'together with'
#oleh karena 'because of, on account of'

#dari pada 'than, rather than' (in expressions of comparison); 
#ke pada 'to (someone)'
#Both ke pada and dari pada are usually written as one word: kepada and daripada.

#From the point of view of grammar, these sequences
#behave like single words and are best regarded as being prepositions.


#Indonesian also have complex prepositions. Some examples are:

#terhadap 'directed at, towards'
#beserta 'together with'
#sesudah, setelah 'after'
#sebelum 'before'
#sejak 'since'


#13

hukuman terhadap pelaku kejahatan sangat berat

#punishment directed.at actor KE-cruel-AN very heavy
#The punishment for criminal actor is very heavy



#Some prepositional meanings are also expressed by certain verbs such as:

#mengenai 'about'
#menurut 'according to, follow'
#lewat 'via (pass by)


#14

Menurut peraturan pemerintah Indonesia

#according.to regulation government Indonesia
#according to Indonesian government regulation




#Prepositional Phrases


#A preposition forms a prepositional phrase with a following noun phrase.
#The following are all prepositional phrases:

 
#15



PP: untuk saya

#for 1SG
#for me


#16


PP: di bawah meja

#at down table
#under the table


#17


PP: sejak bulan January

#since month January
#since January


#18


PP: sebelum Perang Dunia Kedua

#before War World ORD-two
#before the second World War


#19


PP: dengan ayahnya

#with father-3SG.POSS
#with his father


#Prepositions typically express relationships between things and events
#and so prepositional phrases can modify both nouns and verbs or whole
#clauses.

#When prepositional phrases modify nouns, they form new, larger, noun
#phrases with them, as examples below illustrate.


#The following are examples of Prepositional phrases modifying nouns, 
#to form noun phrases:


#20


DP: Hadiah untuk saya

#present for 1SG
#The present for me


#21


DP: Buku di bawah meja

#book at down table
#A book under the table


#22


DP: periode sejak bulan January

#period since month January
#the period since January


#23


DP: pertempuran sebelum Perang Dunia Kedua

#PER-fight-AN before War World ORD-two
#A battle before the second World War


#24


DP: Anak laki-laki disamping ayahnya

#child male-REDUP with father-3SG.POSS
#The boy beside his father


#Prepositional phrases in this position, modifying nouns, are often
#equivalent to longer relative clauses with verb ada 'be'. 


#25


DP: Buku yang ada di bawah meja

#book REL be at down table
#A book which is under the table


#26


DP: Anak laki-laki yang ada disamping ayahnya

#child male-REDUP REL be  with father-3SG.POSS
#The boy who is  beside his father


#When prepositional phrases modify verbs or whole clauses, they are often
#interchangeable with, and occur in the same position as, adverbs.


#27

Mereka tinggal di sini

#3PL live in here
#They live here


#28

Mereka tinggal sangat dekat

#3PL live  very near
#They live very close


#29

Dia merayap di belakang kursi

#3SG ME-crawl in behind chair
#He crawled behind the chairs


#Prepositional phrases can be used predicatively (i.e. as predicate prepositional
#phrases), with the verb ada.


#30

Buku ada di bawah meja

#book be in down table
#The book is under the table


#31

Saya di sini

#1SG in here
#I am here


#32

Bapak ke kota

#Father to kota
#Father went to town


#33

Ibu dari pasar

#mother from market
#mother is from the market



#Some, but not all, Indonesian prepositions can also occur as
#subordinating conjuctions, that is, as the little words that introduce 
#subordinate clauses.
#Words which can play this double role include sesudah 'after', sebelum 'before'
#and 'sejak'  since.

#The two different uses are illustrated below.


#Preposition:


#34

Kamu harus mendaftar sebelum hari senin

#2SG must MEN-register before day Monday
#You must register before Monday


#35

Setelah jam tujuh, mereka makan pagi

#after hour seven, 3PL eat morning
#After seven o'clock, they had breakfast


#36

Semua ini terjadi sejak malam tahun baru

#All this ter-happen since night year new
#All of this happened since new year's eve


#Subordinating conjunction:


#37

Kamu harus mendaftar sebelum mereka berangkat ke Jayapura

#2SG must MEN-register before 3PL depart to Jayapura
#You must register before they go to Jayapura


#38

Setelah mereka makan pagi, mereka pergi ke sekolah
 
#after 3PL eat morning, 3PL go to school
#After they had had breakfast, they went to school


#39

Semua ini terjadi sejak saya masih ada di Biak

#All this ter-happen since 1SG still be in Biak
#All of this happened since I was still in Biak


#Finally, there is also a conjunction word that can function as a conjunction
#and as a preposition. One such conjunction is the conjuction word karena
#'because'

#The following examples illustrate the contrast between conjuction karena as a
#conjunction and as a preposition.


#40

Dia tidak datang karena Ibunya sakit

#3SG NEG come because mother-3SG.POSS sick
#he did not come because his mother was sick

#Sentence 1 uses karena as a conjunction which links subordinate clause
#ibunya sakit 'his mother was sick' to the main clause dia tidak datang
#'he did not come'.


#41

Selpius lemah karena kelaparan

#Selpius weak because KE-hungry-AN
#Selpius is weak because of hunger
#Selpius is weak from hunger

#Sentence 2 uses karena as a preposition. Preposition karena link the noun 
#phrase kelaparan 'hunger' to the predicate lemah 'be weak'.


#Reference:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 189-194) 


#Preposition: pada, di, oleh


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Pada
#Di
#Oleh


#Pada 'at, in, on'


#Pada occurs in front of expressions of time, as English prepostion in, on, and
#at do.


#1


Baldus lahir pada tahun 1971

#Baldus born on year 1971
#Baldus was born in 1971



#Prepositon di 'at/on/in' and locative noun dalam 'inside' can also occur before
#the word tahun 'year' or bulan 'month'.


#2


Baldus lahir di tahun 1971

#Baldus born on year 1971
#Baldus was born in 1971


#3


Pesawat itu jatuh dalam bulan Maret 

#Plane that fall in March
#That aeroplane fell in March


#Preposition pada and di can also be used for the following time expressions:


#pada/di malam hari 'at night time'
#pada/di sore hari 'in the late afternoon'
#pada/di siang hari 'during the day, in the late morning or early to late 
#afternoon'
#pada/di pagi hari 'in the morning'
#pada/di suatu hari 'one day'
#pada/di hari Senin 'on Monday'


#4

PP: pada malam hari  

#at night day
#at night time
# 'di' is also possible


#5

PP: pada hari Senin

#at day Monday
#On Monday
# 'di' is also possible


#6


Pertemuan itu akan dilaksanakan pada hari Senin

#PER-meet-AN that will DI-do-KAN on day Monday
#The meeting will be held on Monday
# 'di' is also possible


#7

Pada waktu mereka datang dia belum bisa berbahasa Inggris

#on time 3PL come 3SG not.yet can BER-speak English
#AT the time they arrived she could not speak English yet



#Locative noun dalam 'inside' cannot be used with names of days and different times
#in a day.


#Ungrammatical:


#8

PP: dalam pagi hari (0! 0 0 0) 

#inside morning day
#in the morning


#Ungrammatical:


#9

PP: dalam hari Rabu (0! 0 0 0)

#in day Wednesday
#in Wednesday



#When location in time is expressed, preposition pada is used instead of di.


#10

Mereka tiba pada jam lima

#3PL arrive at hour five
#They arrived at five o'clock


#Ungrammatical:


#11

Mereka tiba di jam lima (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL arrive at hour five
#They arrived at five o'clock


#12

PP: pada tanggal empat

#on date four
#on the fourth


#Ungrammatical:


#13


PP: di tanggal empat (0! 0 0 0)

#at date four
#on the fourth




#Preposition pada occurs in front of certain nouns


#14

Pada tingkat ketiga mahasiswa menyusun makalah

#on level ORD-three student MEN-compose paper
#At the third level the students write a paper



#Ungrammatical:


#15

tingkat ketiga mahasiswa menyusun makalah (0! 0 0 0)

#level ORD-three student MEN-compose paper
#At the third level the students write a paper



#Preposition pada corresponds to prepositon to in English. It alternates, or 
#is a variant of, kepada 'to'

#Kepada expresses movement toward someone, or transfer to a person


#16

Ani mengirim surat kepada ayahnya

#Ani MEN-send letter to father-3SG.POSS
#Ani sent a letter to her father


#In ordinary conversation people may use ke or pada for sentence (16).
#Thus, we may have sentences (17) and (18). More examples are shown 
#in examples (19) to (22)


#17

Ani mengirim surat ke ayahnya

#Ani MEN-send letter to father-3SG.POSS
#Ani sent a letter to her father


#18

Ani mengirim surat pada ayahnya

#Ani MEN-send letter to father-3SG.POSS
#Ani sent a letter to her father



#19

Anak itu telah kembali pada orangtuanya

#child that already return to parents-3SG.POSS
#The child already returned to his parents


#20

Anak itu telah kembali kepada orangtuanya

#child that already return to parents-3SG.POSS
#The child already returned to his parents


#21

Kami minta bantuan pada Pak Guru

#1PL.INCL request help-AN to sir teacher
#We asked for a help from the teacher
#We asked the teacher for a help


#22

Kami minta bantuan kepada Pak Guru

#1PL.INCL request help-AN to sir teacher
#We asked for a help from the teacher
#We asked the teacher for a help



#Preposition pada is used as a linker between certain adjectives and their
#complements, often  (but not always) equivalent to the English 'with' and 'to'.


#23

Ibu marah pada saya

#mother angry to 1SG
#Mother is angry with me


#24

Mereka harus baik pada kami

#3PL must nice to 3PL.INCL
#They've got to be nice to us


#Other words in this group include:


#suka pada 'be interested in' 

#tergantung pada 'be dependent on'

#lupa pada 'forget'

#teringat pada 'remember' 




#Di 'at, in, on'


#Preposition di indicates location at a place, in a place or on something.


#Locative nouns can be ommitted if a position is commonly understood:


#di dalam laci --> di laci   'inside a drawer'


#25

PP: di dalam laci

#at inside drawer
#in the drawer


#26

PP: di laci

#at drawer
#in the drawer



#di atas meja  --> di meja


#27


PP: di atas meja

#at top table
#on the table


#28


PP: di meja

#at table
#on the table


#When a position is specific and not normally understood, a locative 
#noun must be used.


#29

PP: di bawah meja

#at down table
#under the table


#Ungrammatical:


#30

PP: di meja (0! 0 0 0)

#at table
#under the table

#Preposition di cannot mean "under" without "bawah". It has the meaning "at the table" 
#or "on the table" as example 28 illustrates. In example 30 it is ungrammatical because 
#the meaning of di is "under". 

#Preposition di may be omitted for figurative space. It occurs when
#preposition di combines with certain locative nouns such as
#dalam 'inside' and antara 'between'. 


#31

Tokoh utama di dalam cerita Mahabarata

#character main at inside story Mahabarata
#The main character in the Mahabarata's story


#32

Tokoh utama  dalam cerita Mahabarata

#character main inside story Mahabarata
#The main character in the Mahabarata's story


#33

Pertemuan di antara dua pemimpin itu menghasilkan sebuah resolusi

#PER-meet-AN at between two leader that MEN-result-KAN se-CLASS resolution
#The meeting between the two leaders produced a resolution


#34

Pertemuan antara dua pemimpin itu menghasilkan sebuah resolusi

#PER-meet-AN between two leader that MEN-result-KAN se-CLASS resolution
#The meeting between the two leaders produced a resolution




#Oleh 'by'

#preposition oleh is usually used in a passive clause construction.
#It always appears before the agent of a passive verb. 


#35

Gadis itu dipukul oleh pacarnya

#girl that DI-beat by partner-3SG.POSS
#That girl was beaten by her boyfriend



#Oleh is also used after an intransitive verb:



#36


Banyak orang mati oleh wabah kolera

#many people die by disease cholera
#Many people died as a result of cholera disease



References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 665-669, 965-966).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 189-194) 





#Verbal Clauses  

#Verbal clauses

#Verbal clauses have a verb as their predicate centre.

#The purpose of this document is to explore different types of verbal clauses.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

# (i) Transitive verb;
# (ii) Inransitive verb;
# (iii) ditransitive verb;



#Transitive Verb


#A transitive clause contains a subject, a predicate, and an object.
#Objects in transitive clauses always follow the verb.

#1

Hasan minum teh

#Hasan drink tea
#Hasan drinks tea
#Hasan drank tea

#2

Joko membantu Ali

#Joko help Ali
#Joko is helping Ali


#Ungrammatical

#3

Hasan teh minum (0! 0 0 0)

#Hasan tea drink
#Hasan drinks tea

#Note that when the object teh 'tea' is placed before the predicate, the sentence is
#ill-formed.


#Ungrammatical 

#4

Joko Ali membantu (0! 0 0 0)

#Joko Ali help
#Joko is helping Ali

#Here the case is the same as in (3). The object should not precede the predicate.


#A number of adjuncts can occur in the transitive clause.

#5

Setahun yang lalu Joko membantu Ali dengan sejumlah uang

#se-tahun yang lalu Joko mem-bantu Ali dengan se-jumlah uang
#CLASS-year rel ago Joko Men-help Ali with CLASS-amount money
#A year ago Joko helped Ali with a sum of money


#Intransitive Verb

#An intransitive clause has two nuclear components, a subject, which indicate the actor, and
#a predicate which contains an intransitive verb.

#6

Hasan masuk

#Hasan enter
#Hasan enters
#Hasan entered

#Intransitive clauses frequently have one or more adjuncts.

#7

Hasan masuk ke kamar

#Hasan enter to room
#Hasan enters the room
#Hasan entered the room

#8

Setiap hari Hasan masuk ke kamar

#every day  Hasan enter to room
#Every day Hasan enters the room

#9

Setiap hari Hasan masuk ke kamar untuk bekerja

#every day Hasan enter to room to work
#Every day Hasan enters the room to work


#The position of adjuncts of time can be before the subject (ex.9), before the verb (ex.10) or after the verb (ex.11).

#10

Hasan masuk ke kamar untuk bekerja setiap hari

#Hasan enter to room to work day every
#Hasan enters the room to work everyday

#11

Hasan masuk ke kamar setiap hari untuk bekerja

#Hasan enter to room every day to work
#Hasan enters the room everyday to work


#Ditransitive clauses

#The order of ditransitive clause is Subject + Predicate + Direct Object + Indirect Object.
#The sentence will be ill-formed if the preposition is removed.

#12

Mereka mengirim paket itu kepada kami

#3PL Men-kirim package that to 1PL.INCL
#They sent that package to us
#They sent us that package


#13

Mereka mengirim paket itu kami

#3PL Men-kirim package that 1PL.INCL
#They sent that package to us
#They sent us that package

#With the use of Locative suffix -i on the verb, the word order of ditransitive clause can be changed
#into subject + predicate + indirect object + direct object.

#14

Mereka mengirimi kami paket itu

#3PL Men-kirim-i(LOC) 1PL.INCL package that
#They sent us that package
#The function of Locative suffix -i is to indicate that the object is the person or place
##to which the action is directed (see Sneddon J, 1999:84).

#Changing the order  of (14) will cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.

#Ungrammatical

#15

Mereka mengirimi  paket itu   kami  (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL Men-kirim-i(LOC)  package that   1PL.INCL
#They sent us that package

#16 

Ibu membuat secangkir kopi untuk saya

#mother Men-make CLASS-cangkir coffee for 1SG
#Mother made    a cup of coffee for me
#The order of (16) is Subject + Predicate + Direct Object + Indirect Object.
#Similar to (14), this order can be changed into Subject + Predicate + Indirect Object 
#+ Direct Object with the use of benefactive suffix -kan.

#17

Ibu membuatkan saya secangkir kopi

#mother Men-make-kan 1SG CLASS-cangkir coffee
#Mother made  me a cup of coffee  

#Benefactive -kan indicates that the object is the beneficiary (See Sneddon J, 1999:80).

#See more examples of ditransitive clauses in files 24 to 29.

#An intransitive verb can be changed into a transitive verb.

#18

Ali mandi

#Ali have a bath
#Ali is having a bath
#Ali is bathing

#19

Ibu memandikan Ali

#Mother Men-bath-kan Ali
#Mother is bathing Ali

#In (18) and (19), causative suffix -kan is used.

#20

Kera itu bergantung di pohon

#Monkey that Ber-hang in tree
#The monkey is hanging on the tree

#21

Dia menggantung bajunya di lemari pakaian

#3SG MeN-hang  cloth-3POSS in case clothes
#he/She hang up his/her clothes in the wardrobe

#22

Wajahnya berubah

#face-3POSS Ber-change
#his/her face changed

#23

Dia mengubah wajahnya

#He/She MeN-change face-3POSS
#He/She changed his/her face


#24

Mobil berhenti di tengah jalan

#car Ber-stop in middle road
#the car stopped in the middle of the road

#25

Sopir menghentikan mobil di tengah jalan

#driver MeN-stop-kan car in middle road
#the driver stopped the car in the middle of the road

#Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in their prefixes.
#In (20, (23), and (24) prefix ber- indicates reflexive action. In (21), (23),
# and (25). Prefix MeN- changes the verb into a transitive verb.


#Tense/aspect: sudah, telah, sedang, masih, lagi, tengah, akan


#Tense and Aspect

#This document is organised as follows:

#Tense
#Aspect
#Aspect - sudah
#Aspect - telah
#Aspect - sedang
#Aspect - masih
#Aspect - lagi, tengah
#Aspect - akan


#Tense

#Indonesian verbs do not change to indicate tense or aspect.
#A sentence such as dia pergi ke kantor (he goes/went to the office)
#carries no indication of whether the verb pergi refers to a habitual action
#or single occurence and, if the latter, when it happens in relation to 
#the present. Listeners usually pick up meanings from the context
#within which the utterance is made.


#1

Ibu pergi ke pasar

#mother go to market
#mother goes to the market
#mother went to the market
#mother is going to the market


#Time can be indicated by adjuncts of time such as setiap hari 'every day' and tadi pagi
#'this morning' (past) sebentar malam 'this evening' (FUT)

#2

Ibu pergi ke pasar setiap hari

#mother go to market every day
#mother goes to the market everyday


#3

Ibu pergi ke pasar tadi pagi

#mother go to market before now morning
#mother went to the market this morning

#4

Ibu pergi ke pasar sebentar malam

#mother go to market before after now evening
#mother went to the market this evening


#Aspect

#Aspect markers are usually used to indicate completeness or continuation of an event or action.


#Aspect - sudah

#Sudah indicates that an action/event has occurred or that a state has been achieved

#2

Ibu Siwabessy sudah pergi ke kantor

#mother Siwabessy PERF go to office
#Madame Siwabessy has gone to the office


#Amir sudah sehat kembali
#Amir PERF healthy back
#Amir has already recovered (Lit: AMir has got  his health back)


#3

Bapak sudah bangun

#father PERF wake up
#father has woken up / fathe is awake

#4

Anak itu sudah mandi

#Child that PERF take a shower/bath
#The child has taken a shower/bath / He is clean now

#With such verbs, however, sudah can also indicate that the action is complete;
#context indicating which is meant:

#5

Siswa-siswa itu sudah beristirahat

#student-REDUP that PERF BER-rest
#The students have taken a rest (and are now ready to study)

#Note that examples 3, 4, and 5 show that when sudah is combined with verbs which indicate 
#a state, it usually refers both to the action which begins the state and the continuation 
#of the state.



#Sudah with other predicates beside verbs.

#6

Mereka sudah pegawai negeri

#3PL already officer  state
#They are already civil servants (before they were only part-time staff)

#7

Anak laki-laki itu sudah tinggi

#child male-REDUP that already tall
#The boy is already tall

#8

Kami sudah di sini

#1PL.EXCL already at here
#We are already here



#Aspect - telah

#Telah has the same meaning as sudah.

#9

Siswa-siswa itu telah beristirahat

#student-REDUP that PERF BER-rest
#The students have taken a rest  

#The difference between the two is a matter of register; telah is mostly used in
#formal speech or in writing. Sudah occurs both in formal and informal styles.


#Telah with other predicates beside verbs.


#Ungrammatical

#10

Mereka telah dokter (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL already doctor
#They have become doctors


#Ungrammatical

#11

Anak laki-laki itu telah tinggi (0! 0 0 0)

#child male-REDUP that already tall
#The boy is already tall


#Ungrammatical

#12

Kami telah di sini   (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL already at here
#We are already here


#Although examples 12 and 13 are ungrammatical, they may still be acceptable
#e.g. when using them in an informal meeting (although this is very rare).

#Sentence 12 would be grammatical when telah precedes the verb as in 13.

#13

Kami telah tinggal di sini

#1PL.EXCL already live at here
#We have already lived here


#similarly example 14 is best replaced by 15:

#Ungrammatical

#14

Mereka telah pegawai negeri  (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL already officer  state
#They are already civil servants (before they were only part-time staff)


#15

Mereka telah menjadi pegawai negeri

#3PL already meN-become officer  state
#They have already become civil servants (before they were only part-time staff)


#Sentence 15 is grammatical when telah precedes a verb.


#Aspect - sedang

#Sedang 'in progress' or 'in the process of'. Sedang indicates that an action or event
#is in progress or in process.

#Similar to sudah sedang precedes the verb of the sentence.

#16

Dia sedang menulis

#3SG in the process of meN-write
#He/she is writing


#Ungrammatical:

#17

Dia  menulis sedang  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG meN-write in the process of
#He/she is writing

#Aspect - lagi, tengah


#Lagi and tengah have similar meanings with sedang, however,
#their use is not common.

#Lagi and tengah precede the verb of the sentence just like sudah and sedang.


#18

Dia lagi tidur

#3SG in the process of sleep
#He is sleeping


#19

Sekolah ini tengah direnovasi oleh PT Baratayuda

#school this middle PASS-renovate by PT Sinar Surya
#This school is being renovated by PT Sinar Surya

 

#Aspect - masih

#masih indicates that an action/event is still happening:

#20

Mereka masih kuliah

#3PL still study
#They are still studying


#Masih with other predicates beside verbs.


#21

Mereka masih pegawai negeri

#3PL still officer  state
#They are still civil servants 

#22

Dia masih bujang  

#3SG still single 
#He/se is still single

#23

Kami masih di sini

#1PL.EXCL still at here
#We are still here


#Aspect - akan


#Akan indicates a future event or state:

#Akan precedes verbal and non-verbal predicates.


#24

Dia akan sakit

#3SG will sick
#He/She will be sick

#25

Kami akan tidur di sini

#1PL.EXCL will sleep at here
#We will sleep here


#Ungrammatical:

#26

Dia sakit akan (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG sick will
#He/She will be sick


#Akan cannot precede a noun.

#Ungrammatical

#27

Dia akan mentri  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG will minister
#He will become a minsiter




 

#Aspect: bakal, baru, pernah


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Aspect - bakal
#Aspect - baru
#Aspect - pernah


#Aspect - bakal

#Bakal indicates a future action/event. It is not commonly used. It mostly occurs with
#verbs.  

#1

Dia bakal makan nanti

#3SG will eat later
#He/She will eat later

#2

Tugasnya bakal berat

#task-3POSS will heavy
#His/her task will be heavy

#Bakal always precedes the verb.

#Ungrammatical:

#3

Dia makan bakal nanti  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG eat will later
#He/She will eat later


#when bakal precedes a noun it is part of the noun phrase which means future,
#prospective.

#4

bakal wakil presiden

#future vice president
#future/prospective vice president



#Aspect - baru

#baru indicates that an action or state has just occurred:

#5

Mereka baru tiba

#3PL just arrive
#They have just arrived

#6

Dia baru bangun

#3SG just wake up
#He has just woken up

#Baru always precedes the verb.


#Ungrammatical:

#7

Mereka tiba baru (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL arrive just
#They have just arrived

#Ungrammatical:

#8

Dia  bangun baru   (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG  wake up just
#He has just woken up


#Baru is often followed by saja 'only'  for emphasis:


#9

Mereka baru saja tiba

#3PL just  only arrive
#They have only just arrived

#10

Dia baru saja bangun

#3SG just only wake up
#He has only just woken up

#It is possible to have the verb between baru and saja. However, the use of this
#construction will vary regionally.

#11

Mereka baru tiba  saja

#3PL just arrive  only
#They have only just arrived

#12

Dia baru  bangun saja

#3SG just  wake up only
#He has only just woken up



#Aspect - pernah

#Pernah corresponds to 'ever' in English.  
#It indicates that an action occurred in the far past.
#Other meanings of pernah are 'at one time', 'at some time in the past', and
#'a long time ago'.

#Pernah always precedes the verb.

#13

Dia pernah tinggal di Jakarta

#3SG ever live in Jakarta
#He has ever lived in Jakarta
#He once lived in Jakarta


#Ungrammatical:

#14

Dia tinggal di Jakarta pernah  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG live in Jakarta once
#He has ever lived in Jakarta
#He once lived in Jakarta


#15

Apakah anda pernah membaca karangan Sukarno?

#Quest 2SG ever meN-read writing Sukarno?
#Have you ever read any Sukarno's writing?


#16

Buku itu Buku terbaik yang pernah saya baca

#book that book ter-good rel ever 1SG read
#that book is the best book I have ever read.

#17

Dulu, waktu saya masih muda, saya pernah mengunjungi kebun binatang

#a long time ago, time 1SG still young, 1SG ever meN-visit-I garden animal
#A long time ago when I was still young I had ever visited the zoo.



#Without verbal predicates:

#18

Saya pernah ke Sidney

#1SG ever to Sydney
#I have ever been to Sydney

#19

Saya belum pernah ke Sydney

#SG neg ever to Sydney
#I have never been to Sydney

#20

Saya sudah pernah pergi ke Jakarta

#1SG already ever go to Jakarta
#I have ever been to Jakarta


#21

Kami tidak pernah merokok dalam kelas

#1PL.EXCL neg ever smoke in class
#We never smoke in the classroom.


#In writing it is ungrammatical to have pernah following non-verbal
#predicates.

#Ungrammatical:

#22

Saya  ke Sidney pernah  (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG  to Sydney  ever
#I have ever been to Sydney


#Ungrammatical:

#23

Saya  ke Sydney belum pernah  (0! 0 0 0)

#SG   to Sydney neg ever
#I have never been to Sydney

#Ungrammtical:

#24

Saya  pergi ke Jakarta sudah pernah (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG  go to Jakarta already ever
#I have ever been to Jakarta


#25

Kami  merokok dalam kelas tidak pernah  (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL neg ever smoke in class
#We never smoke in the classroom.


#In informal conversation, however, examples 23, 24 and 25 are acceptable.





#Modals


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Modals and verbs
#Modals and adjectives
#Modals and locatives
#Combinations of modals, negative, and temporal markers
#Modals and negatives
#Modals and temporal markers
#Modals and two negatives

#Indonesian modals are:
#dapat 'can'
#bisa 'be able'
#boleh 'may, have permission'
#harus, mesti 'must'
#perlu 'ought to'
#mampu, sanggup 'able, have the capacity'
#sempat 'have a chance/opportunity, have the time'


#Modals and verbs

#Modals usually occur with verbs. The position of modals is always
#before the verb.

#1

Kamu boleh tinggal di sini

#2SG may live in here
#You may live here

#Ungrammatical:

#2

Kamu  tinggal boleh di sini (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG live may in here
#You may live here


#Modals and adjectives:

#3

Dia bisa sakit

#3SG can sick
#He/She can be sick

#Ungrammatical:

#4

Dia sakit bisa (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG sick can
#He/She can be sick


#5

Loncatan anak ini harus tinggi

#jump child this must high
#this child's jump must be high

#6

Kamu boleh senang

#2SG may happy
#You may be happy



#Modals and locatives:

#7

Kamu boleh ke sana

#2SG may to there
#You may go there


#Ungrammatical:

#8

Kamu ke sana boleh  (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG  to there may
#You may go there


#9

Kamu harus ke sekolah

#2SG must to school
#You must go to school


#Ungrammatical:

#10

Kamu  ke sekolah harus (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG to school must
#You must go to school


#11

Kamu perlu ke bawah

#2SG ought to below
#You should go down

#Ungrammatical:


#12

Kamu ke bawah perlu (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG to below ought
#You should go down


#Combinations of modals, negative, and temporal markers


#Many combinations of negative, temporal and modal are possible.
#According to Sneddon, the first to occur modifies the meaning of everything
#which follows within the predicate (Sneddon J, 1996:201).


#Modals and Negatives:

#13

Kamu tidak boleh tidur

#2SG NEG may sleep
#You are not allowed to sleep


#14

Kamu boleh tidak tidur

#2SG may NEG sleep
#You are allowed not to sleep


#In example 13 tidak modifies boleh tidur 'may sleep', giving 'not the case that
#(you) may sleep', while in example 14 boleh expresses the possibility of 
#tidak tidur 'not sleep', giving 'permissible (for you) not to sleep'.

#Negative can precede or follow a modal. When it precedes
#a modal, it modifies the modal. However, when it follows a modal 
#it does not modify the modal but it modifies the verb that follows it.

#15

Loncatan anak ini tidak bisa tinggi

#jump child this NEG can high
#the child's jump cannot be high


#16

Loncatan anak ini bisa tidak tinggi

#jump child this  can NEG high
#the child's jump can be not high


#17

Calon presiden tidak harus bicara bahasa Inggris

#candidate president NEG must speak language English
#presidential candidates do not oblige to speak English

#18

Calon presiden harus tidak bicara bahasa Inggris

#candidate presiden must NEG  speak language English
#presidential candidates oblige not to speak English



#Modals and Temporal Markers:


#19

Mereka sudah harus tiba jam sepuluh tepat

#3PL PERF must arrive time ten exactly
#They must be already here by ten o'clock

#20

Mereka harus sudah tiba jam sepuluh tepat

#3PL must PERF arrive time ten exactly
#They must be already here by ten o'clock

#Although 19 and 20 have a reverse word order, the meaning does not change.
#Thus sudah harus and harus sudah both mean 'must already':


#Not all combinations of modals and temporal markers are possible:


#21

Saya baru sempat istirahat setelah kembali dari Jakarta

#1SG just have.a.chance have.a.rest after back from Jakarta
#I just had a time to have a rest after returning from Jakarta


#Ungrammatical:

#22

Saya  sempat baru istirahat setelah kembali dari Jakarta (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG have.a.chance just  have.a.rest after back from Jakarta
#I just had a time to have a rest after returning from Jakarta

#Note that baru + sempat is possible in 21 but sempat + baru is not
#possible in 22.


#23

Dia masih mampu berdiri

#3SG still be.able.to BER-stand
#He is still able to stand up

#Ungrammatical:


#24

Dia mampu masih  berdiri  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG be.able.to still  BER-stand
#He is still able to stand up


#Modals and two negatives:

#Examples 13 - 18 above show that negative can occur before or after a
#modal. The following examples show that two negatives can occur in
#the predicate.

#25

Pertemuan ini sangat penting

#meeting this very important
#This meeting is very important

kamu tidak bisa tidak datang

#2Sg NEG can NEG come
#You cannot avoid coming (to the meeting)

#26

Malaria menyerang setiap orang di Jayapura

#Malaria MeN-attack each person in Jayapura
#Malaria attacks everyone in Jayapura

Mereka tidak bisa tidak sakit

#3Pl NEG can NEG sick
#They cannot avoid being sick


#The occurrence of two negatives in sequence will be avoided. It does not matter
#what position the two negatives appear in.


#Ungrammatical:

#27

kamu tidak tidak bisa datang  (0! 0 0 0)

#2Sg NEG NEG can  come
#You cannot avoid coming (to the meeting)

 
#Ungrammatical:

#28

kamu bisa tidak tidak  datang  (0! 0 0 0)

#2Sg can NEG NEG come
#You cannot avoid coming (to the meeting)


#Ungrammatical:

#29

Mereka tidak tidak bisa  sakit 0! 0 0 0)

#3Pl NEG NEG can sick
#They cannot avoid being sick







#VOICE: active and passive


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Active Clauses
#Passive Clauses
#Passive Type 1
#Passive Type 2
#What passive type to use


#Active Clauses

#In an active clause the subject of the clause will precede the active verb.

#The normal pattern of an active clause is 
#Subject (actor) + meN-verb + Object (patient)

#1

Mereka membuang sampah

#3PL meN-throw rubbish
#They throw rubbish

#2

Anjing mengigit saya

#dog meN-bite 1SG
#The dog bit me

#Example 1 and 2  are active clauses with one (direct) object each. 
#They have mereka '3PL' and anjing 'dog' as the subjects
#of the clauses. Notice that the active verb has prefix MeN-. Sentence 1 and 2
#are examples of active clauses where the subject is the actor.


#Passive Clauses


#If we want to focus attention on the object of an active clause, we can change
#the active verb into a passive verb by replacing prefix meN- with prefix DI-  
#and shift the order of subject and object in the clause.


#3

Sampah dibuang oleh mereka

#rubbbish DI-throw by 3PL
#rubbish were thrown by them


#The subject of the passive clause precedes the passive verb.


#4

Saya digigit oleh anjing 

#1SG DI-bite by dog
#I was bitten by the dog


#Example 4 and 5 are passive clauses where the subject is the patient.
#Notice that the passive verb has prefix DI-. 



#Dardjowijojo (1978:153 and 199) divides Indonesian passives into two types.
#The first type is called passive type one and the second one is
#called passive type 2.


#Passive Type One

#The structure of passive type one is Subject (patient) + di-verb + (oleh) + Agent (actor)


#5

Kami diberi uang oleh mereka

#1PL.EXCL DI-give money by 3PL
#We were given money by them


#Ungrammatical:

#6

Kami oleh mereka diberi uang (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL by 3PL DI-give money 
#We were given money by them


#7

Buku ini ditulis oleh Agus

#book this DI-write by Agus
#This book is written by Agus


#Ungrammatical:


#8


oleh Agus buku ini ditulis  (0! 0 0 0)

#by Agus book this DI-write 
#This book is written by Agus


#Ungrammatical:

#9


buku ini oleh Agus ditulis  (0! 0 0 0)

#by Agus book this DI-write 
#This book is written by Agus



#Passive type one is used when no actor is expressed.


#10

Barang ini akan dikirim ke Jepang

#good this FUT DI-send to japan
#These goods will be sent to Japan


#The use of oleh 'by' is optional.


#11

Mereka sudah dijemput olehnya

#3PL PERF DI-pick by-3SG
#They have been picked up by him


#12

Mereka sudah dijemputnya

#3PL PERF DI-pick-3SG
#They have been picked up by him



#A third person singular can be expressed by dia '3SG' or third person singular 
#clitic -nya '-3SG'.


#13

Ruman ini dibangun oleh dia

#house this DI-build by 3SG
#this house was built by him


#14

Ruman ini dibangun olehnya

#house this DI-build by-3SG
#this house was built by him


#Passive Type Two

#In passive type two the verb remains the same as the active verb in active clause.
#The only change that occurs is the order of subject and object of the sentence.
#In the passive type two the agent comes before the verb just like in normal 
#active clauses. The patient, however, occurs before the agent.

#According to Sneddon (1996), the agent of passive type two is a pronoun or
#pronoun substitute (referring to first or second person).


#15

Uangnya  sudah Tini kembalikan

#money-3SG.POSS PERF I (Tini) return-KAN
#I (Tini) have returned his/her money



#The structure of passive type two is Subject (patient) + Agent (actor) + verb  

#The following examples show how a normal active clause is changed into
#a passive type two clause.


#16

Kami menjemput dia

#3PL.EXCL meN-pick up 3SG
#We picked him up


#17

Dia kami jemput

#3SG 1PL.EXCL pick up
#He was picked up by us

#Notice that in (17) prefix meN- is deleted. 


#Ungrammatical:

#18

Dia kami menjemput (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG 1PL.EXCL meN-pick up
#He was picked up by us


#Sneddon (1996) suggested that no other components of the clause can come between
#the agent and the verb in passive type two. In particular, components of 
#the predicate phrase, such as negative and temporal marker, come before 
#the agent in passive type two:


#19

Buku ini tidak akan kami baca

#book this not FUT 1PL.EXCL read
#this book will not be read by us


#It seems that when negative and temporal marker are inserted between the 
#agent and the verb of passive type two, they change the passive clause 
#into an active clause with the focus or emphasis on the object of the 
#active clause:


#20

Buku ini  kami tidak akan baca

#book this 1PL.EXCL NEG FUT read
#This book we will not read


#Example (20) is not a passive type two clause but an active clause with 
#the focus on the object.  


#What passive type to use:

#Either passive type one or passive type two can be used if the actor is DIA '3SG'
#or MEREKA '3PL'.


#21

Sepeda baru ini belum dibayarnya

#bicycle new this not yet DI-pay-3SG
#He has not paid for this new bicycle


#22

Sepeda baru ini belum dia bayar 

#bicycle new this not yet 3SG pay 
#He has not paid for this new bicycle



#23

Majalah ini sudah dibaca oleh mereka

#magazine this PERF DI-read by 3PL
#They have read this magazine


#24

Majalah ini sudah mereka baca  

#magazine this PERF 3PL read  
#They have read this magazine


#Kinship terms can occur as pronoun substitutes. They can refer to the addressee,
# meaning 'you', or to the speaker, meaning 'I'. When they occur as agent 
#passive type two is used:

#25
 
Sepeda itu sudah Agus bayar

#bicycle that already I (Agus) pay
#I (Agus)  has paid that bicycle

#26
 
Surat ini harus adik tandatangani

#letter this must younger.brother/sister sign-i
#You (younger brother/sister) must sign this letter


#If a third person is being spoken about then Agus and Adik would be the third 
#person nouns and passive type one would be used:


#27

Sepeda itu sudah  dibayar Agus

#bicycle that already DI-pay Agus
#that bicycle has been paid by Agus


#28

Surat ini harus  ditandatangani adikmu

#letter this must DI-sign-i younger.brother/sister-2SG 
#This letter must be signed by your younger brother/sister 


#References: 

#Sneddon, James,N., INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,Rouledge,
#London, 1996. 

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978.   


#Basic copular clauses 


#The purpose of this document is to show the copular constructions
#in Bahasa Indonesia. 


#Indonesian has two copulas: adalah and ialah (see also files 15 and 21).


#The copulas adalah and ialah are not obligatory in Indonesian 
#sentences. In many sentences they are implicit in the word-order. 


#1

Saya mahasiswa

#1SG student
#I am a student


#2 

Pak David dosen saya

#Sir David lecturer 1SG
#Mr David is my lecturer


#3

Dosen saya Pak David

#lecturer 1SG sir David
#My lecturer is Mr David

#In sentences 1 - 3 there is no verb, only an implied copula;
#the word order has an implicit connecting link between the two
#halves of the sentence.

#By inserting a negation we can clearly see how the words group
#themselves together.


#4

Teman saya bukan Budi Utomo

#friend 1SG NEG Budi Utomo
#My friend is not Budi Utomo


#5

Budi Utomo bukan teman saya

#Budi Utomo NEG friend 1SG
#Budi Utomo is not my friend


#The position of the demonstratives ini 'this' and itu 'that' could
#easily indicate the end of a group of words and therefore the words 
#which follow them belong to the other part of the sentence.


#6

Istana presiden ini indah

#palace president this beautiful
#this president palace is beautiful


#7

Wanita yang berdiri di sebelah sana itu teman saya

#woman REL BER-stand LOC part  there that friend 1SG
#the woman who stands over there is my friend



#The demonstratives can stand alone as the subject of the sentence.


#8

Ini rumah besar

#this house big
#This is a big house


#9

Itu kepala bagian perumahan

#that head section PER-house-AN
#That is the head of housing section


#The copulas adalah and ialah are connectors like the English verbs 'to be'.
#They can be inserted in certain simple sentences.


#10

Nama kota itu adalah Makassar

#name town that COP Makassar
#The name of that town is Makassar



#In written and formal Indonesian documents where noun clauses have 
#long subject or predicate, the copulas are normally inserted between
#subject and predicate of the noun clauses.  

#11

Wanita yang mengunjungi kamu kemarin ialah teman saya

#woman REL MEN-visit-i 2SG yesterday COP friend 1SG
#the woman who visited you yesterday was my friend


#12

Saya pikir yang paling penting adalah program belajar kelompok

#1SG think REL most important COP program BEL-learn group
#I think what is most important is the group-learning program


#The copulas adalah and ialah are not obligatory so to insert them into
#any type of sentences will make the sentences unacceptable or
#ungrammatical.


#Ungrammatical:

#13

Mereka adalah cerdas (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL COP clever
#They are clever


#Ungrammatical


#14

Jason ialah senang (0! 0 0 0) 

#Jason COP happy
#Jason is happy


#The following sentence is acceptable but most Indonesians will prefer
#not to use the copula.

#15

Olahraga adalah penting bagi kesehatan.

#sport COP important for KE-health-AN
#sport is important for the health


#Sentence (16) is most commonly used.

#16

Olahraga penting bagi kesehatan

#sport important for health
#spot is important for the health


#The copula adalah is used more than the copula ialah. Most Indonesian grammars 
#suggest that the copula adalah is used for all types of subjects, whereas the 
#copula ialah is used only for a third person/thing.

#17

Wanita itu ialah guru saya

#woman that COP teacher 1SG
#that woman is my teacher


#Ungrammatical:

#18

Saya ialah mahasiswa (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG COP student
#I am a student


#However, the copula ialah is not normally used with third person independent 
#pronouns. Observe the following examples.


#Ungrammatical:


#19

Mereka ialah guru-guru bahasa Inggris dari Australia (0! 0 0 0)

#2PL COP techer-REDUP language English from Australia
#They are English teachers from Australia


#Ungrammatical:


#20

Dia ialah guru saya (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG COP teacher 1SG
#He/She is my teacher


#Most Indonesians will use copula adalah or no copula  at all for sentences
#(19) and (20).

 
#Although the copulas occur mostly in noun clauses, they can also occur in
#adjective clauses and prepositional clauses. 


#21

Menanamkan kebiasaan berolahraga pada anak adalah penting

#MEN-plant-KAN KE-usual-AN BER-sport on child COP important
#Planting the habit of doing exercise on children is important


#22

Letak museum tua itu adalah ditengah-tengah kota

#location museum old that COP LOC-middle-REDUP town
#The location of the old museum is in the middle of the town 


#The copulas adalah and ialah cannot be negated.


#Ungrammatical:

#23

Saya bukan adalah guru (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG NEG COP teacher
#I am not a teacher


#The copulas precede negative an the entire predicate.


#24

Letak museum tua itu adalah bukan ditengah-tengah kota

#location museum old that COP NEG LOC-middle-REDUP town
#The location of the old museum is not in the middle of the town 


#The copula adalah can occur at the beginning of a sentence. Its meaning
#is the same as 'it is .... ' in English.



#25

Adalah sebuah kesalahan dia tidak mengakui perbuatannya

#COP one-CLASS KE-wrong-AN 3SG NEG MEN-admit-i PER-act-AN-3SG.POSS
#It is a mistake that he/she did not admit his action.



#26

Adalah tidak etis menanyakan gaji orang

#COP NEG ethic MEN-ask-KAN salary person
#It is not ethical asking someone's salary

  

#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 551, 758).

#Sarumpaet, J.P.The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia, Sahata Publications,
#Melbourne, 3rd. ed. 1977 (pp.1-11).

#Sarumpaet, J.P. and J.A.C. Mackie. Introduction to Bahasa Indonesia,
#Melbourne University Press, 1966 (pp. 14-15, 76-77).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 237-238) 







#The Verb Ada: existential, possessive, and emphatic uses


#This documents explores different types of constructions of the verb ada 'to be'.


#Ada 'to be' is an intransitive verb. It is used to show existence or presence.
 

#1

Tuhan ada

#God be
#God exists

#2

Bapak ada

#father be
#Father is here


#Explicit locative sentence:

#3

Orang itu ada di rumah

#person that be in house
#that person is at home


#4

Bapa saya sekarang ada di Jakarta

#father 1SG now be in Jakarta
#My father is now in Jakarta



#Existential sentence:

#5

Di kampung ini ada burung kasuari

#in village this be bird cassowary
#There are cassowary birds in this village


#6

Ada burung kasuari di kampung ini

#be bird cassowary in village this
#there are cassowary birds in this village


#When ada means 'there are/is', the prepositional phrases can occur either at
#the beginning or at the end of sentences. 



#There are three types of sentences which use ada 'to be'.


#First, ada is used as an intransitive verb meaning 'there is' or 'there are'  
#(when we are talking about what is located at a particular place, or what happens
#at a particular time).


#7

Ada orang di rumah saya

#be person LOC house 1SG
#There is someone in my hose

#8

ada kecelakaan di kota Kemarin 

#be KE-accident-AN LOC town yesterday 
#There was an accident in the town yesterday


#9

Tidak ada pertemuan besok

#NEG be PER-meet-AN tomorrow
#There is no meeting tomorrow



#Second, ada is used as an intransitive verb meaning to be 'in', 
#to be at home, to be on/at hand.


#10

Bapak ada?

#father be?
#Is father in?


#11

Samuel ada

#Samuel be
#Samuel is in



#Third, ada is used as an intransitive verb meaning 'to have'. 



#12

Saya ada uang

#1SG be money
#I have money


#13

Dia ada kemeja baru

#3SG be shirt new
#He has a new shirt


#14

Rumah ini ada tiga kamar tidur

#house this be three room sleep
#This house has three bedrooms


#The verb ada can be negated in the three types of sentences above. The negation
#precedes the verb ada.


#15

Tidak ada orang di rumah saya

#NEG be person LOC house 1SG
#There isn't anybody in my house


#16

Samuel tidak ada

#Samuel NEG be
#Samuel is not in


#17

Dia tidak ada kemeja baru

#3SG NEG be shirt new
#He does not have a new shirt


#Another use of the verb ada is to emphasise an action. In this type of sentence
#the verb ada is placed immediately before the verb. 


#18


Saya ada mengerjakan tugas

#1SG be MEN-do-kan task
#I did do a task


#19

Kamu ada melihat film itu

#2SG be ME-see film that
#You did see the film


#20

#Mereka ada menanam kelapa

#3PL be MEN-plant coconut
#They do plant coconut trees


#The verb ada cannot be negated when it is used to emphasise an action.


#Ungrammatical:


#21

Kamu tidak ada melihat film itu (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG NEG be ME-see film that
#You did not do see the film


#Ungrammatical:


#22

Mereka tidak ada menanam kelapa (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL NEG be MEN-plant coconut
#They do not do  plant coconut trees



#When ada is put at the beginning of a sentence, it means there is or there are. 
#In this case, ada is always followed by an indefinite nominal.


#23

Ada anjing di dapur

#be dog in kitchen
#there is a dog in the kithen


#24

Anjing ada di dapur

#dog be in kitchen
#the dog is in the kitchen



#25

Koran tidak ada di meja

#newspaper NEG be in table
#the newspaper is not on the table


#26

Tidak ada koran di meja

#NEG be newspaper in table
#There is not any newspaper on the table



#Ada occurs optionally between a nominal subject and adverb of place beginning with
#the preposition di 'in/at', or ke 'to'.


#27

Bapak ada ke kantor

#Father be to office
#Father is on the way to his office


#28

Mereka ada di rumah

#3PL be at home
#They are at home


#29

Bapak ke kantor

#Father to office
#Father is on the way to his office


#30

Mereka di rumah

#3PL at home
#They are at home

 

#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 550).

#Sarumpaet, J.P.The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia, Sahata Publications,
#Melbourne, 3rd. ed. 1977 (pp.87-97).

#Sarumpaet, J.P. and J.A.C. Mackie. Introduction to Bahasa Indonesia,
#Melbourne University Press, 1966 (pp. 14-15).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 263-265) 



#Non-verbal clauses


#Non-verbal clauses 

#Non-verbal clauses have one of a set of non-verbal constructions as their predicate centre.
#The normal order of constituents in a clause is subject + predicate.


#The purpose of this document is to explore different types of non-verbal clauses.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

# (i) Noun clauses;
# (ii)The Copulas adalah and ialah;
# (iii) Adjective Clauses;
# (iv) Quantity Clauses;
# (v) Prepositional Clauses.


#Noun Clauses

#Noun clauses have a noun phrase as their predicate centre.
#Noun clauses are negated by bukan 'not'.

#1

Dia dokter

#3SG doctor
#He/She is a doctor

#2

Itu rumah saya

#that house 1SG
#that is my house


#3 

Dia bukan dokter

#3SG  NEG doctor
#He/She is not a doctor

#4 

Itu bukan rumah saya

#that NEG house 1SG
#that is not my house

#Noun clauses cannot be negated by other negative words
#such as jangan 'not', belum 'not', and tidak 'not'.

#Ungrammatical:

#5 

Dia jangan dokter  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG  NEG doctor
#He/She is not a doctor

#Ungrammatical

#6

Dia tidak dokter  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG  NEG doctor
#He/She is not a doctor


#Ungrammatical

#7 

Dia belum dokter  (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG  NEG doctor
#He/She is not a doctor

#Ungrammatical

#8

Itu jangan rumah saya (0! 0 0 0)

#that NEG house 1SG
#that is not my house


#Ungrammatical

#9

Itu belum rumah saya (0! 0 0 0)

#that NEG house 1SG
#that is not my house

#Ungrammatical

#10 

Itu tidak rumah saya (0! 0 0 0)

#that NEG house 1SG
#that is not my house


#The Copulas adalah and ialah

#The copulas occur mostly in noun clauses.  The meaning of copula adalah and ialah is the same as 
#the meaning of copula be in English (see file 13).

#11 

Sumatera adalah  satu dari pulau-pulau besar di Indonesia

#Sumatera be one of island-REDUP big in Indonesia
#Sumatera is one of the big islands in Indonesia

#12 

Dia adalah seorang guru

#3SG be CLASS teacher
#He/She is a teacher
#The copulas adalah and ialah, however, are not verbs such as English copulas. 
#Most Indonesians would say (12) without the copula as in (13) or (14).

#13 

Dia seorang guru

#3SG CLASS teacher
#He/She is a teacher

#14 

Dia guru

#3SG teacher
#He/She is a teacher



#Adjective Clauses

#Adjective phrase occurs in the predicate centre.
#Adjective clauses are negated by tidak 'not'. Tidak 'not' occurs
#immediately before the adjective phrase (see also file 16).

#15

saya siap

#1SG    ready
#I am ready

#16

Minuman ini panas

#drink this hot
#this drink is hot


#17

saya tidak siap

#1SG  NEG ready
#I am not ready

#18

Minuman ini tidak panas

#drink this NEG hot
#this drink is not hot

#Negative  belum 'not' may also be used for certain adjectives.

#19

saya belum siap

#1SG NEG ready
#I am not ready yet

#20

Minuman ini belum panas

#drink this NEG hot
#this drink is not hot yet

#Ungrammatical:

#21

buku ini belum berat (0! 0 0 0)

#book this NEG heavy
#this book is not heavy yet



#Quantity Clauses

#In this constructions the predicate expresses the number
#or measurement of the subject.

#The predicate with cardinal number:


#22

Anaknya lima

#anak-nya lima
#child-3SG.POSS five
#He has five children. (Lit: His children are five)

#23

Anjing saya dua

#dog 1SG two
#I have two dogs

#24

Kebun saya sepuluh

#garden 1SG ten
#I have ten gardens



#The predicate with indefinite number:

#25

Rumah mereka banyak

#house 3PL many
#They have a lot of houses (Lit: Their houses are many)


#26

Ternak petani ini beratus-ratus

#animal farmer this Ber-hundred-REDUP
#This famer has hundreds of animals. (Lit: The livestock of this farmer are hundreds)
#Adapted from Sneddon, J. 1999:234.


#The predicate with a number followed by a classifier:


#27

Siswa saya sepuluh orang

#student 1SG ten CLASS
#I have ten students (Lit: My students are ten + classifier)



#Negative tidak 'not' is used for the predicate with indefinite number but not for the predicate with 
#cardinal number and the predicate with a number followed by a classifier.

#28

Rumah mereka tidak banyak

#house 3PL NEG many
#They don't have a lot of houses (Lit: Their houses are not many)

# Ungrammatical:

#29

Kebun saya tidak sepuluh (0! 0 0 0)

#garden 1SG NEG ten
#I don't have ten gardens

#Ungrammatical

#30

Siswa saya tidak sepuluh orang  (0! 0 0 0)

#student 1SG NEG ten CLASS
#I don't have ten students (Lit: My students are not ten + classifier)

#Negative bukan 'not' is used for (23) and (24).

#31

Kebun saya bukan sepuluh

#garden 1SG NEG ten
#My gardens are not  ten

#32

Siswa saya bukan sepuluh orang

#student 1SG NEG ten CLASS
#My students are not ten + classifier


#Prepositional Clauses


#Prepositional phrases which usually occurs as clause adjuncts can occur as predicate.

#33

Dia di Sumatera sekarang

#3SG in Sumatera now
#He is in Sumatera now

#34

Mereka tidak dapat hidup tanpa makanan

#3PL NEG able live without food
#They cannot live without food

#35

Ini untuk kamu

#this for you
#this is for you

#36

Anak itu dengan ibunya sekarang

#child that with mother.3POSS now
#The child is with his/her mother now

#See also files 6 and 7. 


#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp.232-246). 
                   #Adjective Clauses

#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Modifying adverbs
#Comparative phrases
#Superlative phrases
#Equative phrases

#Modifying adverbs

#Modifying adverbs precede adjective.
#The following adverbs precede the adjective.

#sangat, amat 'very'
#terlalu, terlampau 'too'
#sungguh 'really, trully'
#cukup ' enough'
#relatif 'relatively'
#serba 'completely'
#agak 'rather'
#makin, semakin, kian, tambah, bertambah 'increasingly'
#begitu, demikian, sedemikian 'so', 'like that'
#begini 'so, like this'

#1

gadis itu sangat cantik

#girl that very beautiful
#That girl is very beautiful

#2

Angin bertiup makin kencang 

#wind BER-blow increasingly strong
#The wind is blowing incresingly strong

#3

Rumah ini cukup besar untuk kita

#house this enough big for 1PL.INCL
#this house is big enough for us


#Modifying adverbs follow the adjectives:

#sekali 'very'
#belaka 'entirely'


#4

Dia lapar sekali

#3SG hungry very
#He is very hungry

#Ungrammatical

#5

Dia sekali lapar (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG very hungry
#He is very hungry

#Modifying adverbs  precede or follow the adjectives:

#sama sekali 'entirely'
#sedikit 'a little'

#6

Rumah itu kosong sama sekali

#house that empty same very
#That house is entirely empty

#7

Rumah itu tidak kosong sama sekali

#house that NEG empty same very
#That house is not entirely empty

#8

Rumah itu sama sekali tidak kosong

#house that same very  NEG  empty 
#That house is entirely not empty


#Combinations of adverbs.

#amat sangat 'exceedingly',
#sangat....sekali 'exceedingly',
#agak....sedikit 'somewhat'

#The combination of adverbs is to show emphasis.


#9

Dia amat sangat pintar

#3SG very very clever
#He is extremely clever

#10

Rina sangat rajin sekali

#Rina very dilligent very
#Rina is extremely dilligent


#11

Harga barang-barang ini agak murah sedikit

#price good-REDUP this a.bit cheap a.little
#The price of these goods is somewhat cheap


#Comparative phrases

#The structure of comparative adjective phrase is  comparative word + adjective.
#The comparative words are lebih 'more', and kurang 'less'.


#12

AP: lebih tinggi

#more tall
#taller


#13

AP: kurang mahal

#less expensive
#less expensive


#Ungrammatical:

#14

AP: mahal kurang (0! 0 0 0)

#expensive less
#less expensive


#Preposition dari or daripada 'from' is used when two items are being compared.


#15

Susan lebih cantik dari Ani

#Susan more beautiful from Ani
#Susan is more beautiful than Ani


#16

Komputer ini kurang mahal dari komputer itu

#computer this less expensive from computer that
#this computer is less expensive than that computer

#Sneddon (1996:179) suggests that a number of modifiers can precede lebih 'more'. 
#Modifiers such as jauh 'far' or sedikit 'a little' 


#17

Rumah ini jauh lebih mahal dari rumah itu

#house this far more expensive from house that
#This house is far more expensive than that one


#The position of the modifier sedikit 'a little', however, does not always precede
#lebih 'more'.


#18

Telkom Speedy ADSL memang lebih murah sedikit

#Telkom Speedy ADSL is more cheap a little
#Telkom Speedy ADSL is a little cheaper

#Source:
#http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:ZplNGG3zVusJ:www.cellulardiary.com/index.php%3
#Fid%3DisiArtikel%26aid%3D271%26page_num%3D4+lebih+murah+sedikit&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=9&
#gl=uk&lr=lang_id

#19

ikan jenis herbivore sedikit lebih murah dibanding ikan karnivora.

#fish type herbivore a little cheap DI-compare fish carnivore
#The herbivore fish is a little cheaper compared to the carnivore fish

#Source:
#http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:Dz9THKVe4ewJ:www.beritaiptek.com/zberita-
#beritaiptek-2008-07-04-Dicari-Pakan-Ikan-Berkualitas,-Murah-dan-Ramah-Lingkungan.
#shtml+sedikit+lebih+murah&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=9&gl=uk&lr=lang_id


#Superlative phrases

#The structure of superlative phrase is superlative word paling 'most' or 
#superlative prefix ter-  + adjective.
#According to Sneddon, many people use prefix ter- with two syllables adjectives.
#The following adjectives may use paling 'most' or superlative prefix ter-.

#kaya 'rich'
#tinggi 'tall'
#cantik 'beautiful'
#mahal 'expensive'
#indah  'pretty'
#besar 'big'
#rendah 'low'

#20

AP: paling kaya

#most rich
#richest

#21

AP: tertinggi

#TER-high
#highest


#22

Pak Budi orang terkaya di desa ini

#Sir Budi person TER-rich in village this
#Mr Budi is the richest man in this village


#Combination with numbers

#Ordinal number can precede or follow adjective.

#23

Dia orang nomor tiga terpenting dalam perusahaan ini

#3SG person number three TER-important in company this
#He is the third most important man in this company

#24

Dia orang terpenting nomor tiga dalam perusahaan ini

#3SG person TER-important number three  in company this
#He is the third most important man in this company



#Ordinal number can be formed by adding prefix ke- into a number. 
#In the superlative construction the ordinal number is placed
#after the adjective.

#25

Dia orang terpenting ketiga dalam perusahaan ini

#3SG person TER-important ORDINAL-third in company this
#He is the third most important man in this company


#26

Dia orang ketiga (yang) terpenting  dalam perusahaan ini

#3SG person ORDINAL-third (REL) TER-important  in company this
#He is the third most important man in this company

#In (26) optional relativizer YANG may be used.
 

#Equative Phrases

#Sneddon (1996:181) proposed two constructions for equative phrases:

#The first equative construction uses this pattern:
#se- + adjective + qualifier

#27

Pulau Biak seluas pulau Singapura

#island Biak se-wide island Singapore
#Biak island is as wide as Singapore island


#The second equative construction uses this pattern:
#sama + adjective-nya dengan + qualifier

#28

Rumah ini sama besarnya dengan rumah itu

#house this same big-NYA with house that
#this house is as big as that house

#Adjective+NYA can occur at the beginning of the sentence.  Observe example (29):


#29

Besarnya Rumah ini sama  dengan rumah itu

#big-3POSS house this same  with house that
#the big (size) of this house is the same as that house


#30

Ali sama tingginya dengan Bapaknya 

#Ali same tall-3POSS with father-3POSS
#Ali is as tall as his father


#31

Tingginya Ali sama dengan Bapaknya

#tall-3POSS same with father-3POSS
#The tall (height) of Ali is the same as his father

#Examples 28--31 are examples of a nominalised predicate construction.
#See File 19 for more information on predicate nominalisation.

#32

Ali sama tinggi dengan Bapaknya

#Ali same tall with Bapak-3POSS
#Ali is as tall as his father
 
#Sentence (32) is more natural-sounding than (30).

#Sneddon (1996:182) argues that the sama...nya construction cannot
#be used if the preceeding noun is first or second person. The reason for this 
#is that -NYA is a third person possessive clitic
#and it cannot co-occur with the first or the second person subject.
#Observe the following examples:


#Ungrammatical

#33

Saya sama pintarnya dengan Budi (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG same clever-3POSS with Budi
#I am as clever as Budi


#Ungrammatical


#34


Kamu sama tingginya dengan ALi (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG same tall-3POSS with Ali
#You are as tall as ALi







#Simple nominal clauses 


#Nominalisation applies to various words and clauses. There are several processes that
#can turn a word or a clause into a noun.


#Three types of nominalisation in Indonesian will be discussed in this test file and
#and the next two test files (files 18 and 19). The three types of nominalisation are:

#Simple nominal clauses;
#Predicate nominalisation;
#Nominalised relative clauses.


#Simple Nominal Clauses

#A clause can be nominalised by placing it in certain positions within another clause


#Simple nominal clauses in subject position.


#Intransitive verbs:

#1

Berkebun bisa meningkatkan penghasilan keluarga

#BER-garden can MEN-increase-kan PEN-product-AN family
#Gardening can increase family's income


#2

Mengarang membutuhkan kreatifitas tinggi

#MEN-compose MEN-require-kan creativity high
#Composing requires a high creativity


#This type of construction is often called gerund in English (verbal nouns).


#Transitive verbs:


#3

Menangkap buaya memerlukan keahlian khusus

#MEN-catch crocodile MEN-need-kan KE-expert-An special
#Catching crocodiles needs special skills


#4

Membakar hutan bukan tindakan yang baik

#MEN-burn forest NEG act-AN REL good
#Burning forests is not a good action


#5

Menonton film kesukaanya

#MEN-watch film KE-like-AN-3POSS
#Watching film is his hobby
#Lit: His interest is watching film


#Sentences (3) to (5) show that objects can occur within the nominalised clause. 
#However, the object cannot be a definite noun. 

#According to Sneddon, the nominalised verb means 'the general activity denoted by 
#the verb' (Sneddon, 1996:307). 
#Therefore, the verb cannot have a subject. Adding a subject to the sentences (3) to (5)
#will cause the sentences to be ungrammatical. In fact, most Indonesian will consider 
#the sentences unacceptable.


#Ungrammatical:

#6

Mereka menangkap buaya memerlukan kehlian khusus (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL MEN-catch crocodile MEN-need-kan KE-expert-An special
#They catch crocodiles needs special skills


#Ungrammatical:

#7

Dia membakar hutan bukan tindakan yang baik (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG MEN-burn forest NEG act-AN REL good
#He burns forests is not a good action


#Ungrammatical:

#8

Dia menonton film kesukaanya (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG MEN-watch film KE-like-AN-3POSS
#He watches film his hobby
 

#Sentence (8) can be interpreted differently as example (9) illustrates:


#9

Dia menonton film kesukaannya

#3SG MEN-watch film KE-like-AN-3POSS
#He watched his favourite film


#Demonstrative itu 'that' can occur in all nominal clauses above. It has the effect of
#identifying the verb as nominal (Sneddon, 1996:308). See also identifying clauses in
#file 23.


#10

Berkebun itu bisa meningkatkan penghasilan keluarga

#BER-garden that can MEN-increase-kan PEN-product-AN family
#As for the gardening, it can increase the family's income



#11

Mengarang itu membutuhkan kreatifitas tinggi

#MEN-compose that MEN-require-kan creativity high
#As for composing, it requires a high creativity


#12

Menangkap buaya itu memerlukan keahlian khusus

#MEN-catch crocodile that MEN-need-kan KE-expert-An special
#Concerning catching crocodiles, it needs special skills


#13

Membakar hutan itu bukan tindakan yang baik

#MEN-burn forest that NEG act-AN REL good
#Concerning burning forests, it is not a good action


#14

Menonton film itu kesukaannya

#MEN-watch film that KE-like-AN-3POSS
#As for watching film, it is his hobby
 

#Demonstrative itu 'that' in sentences (10) to (14) indicates that all instances of 
#the action refer to it. Thus, we can ellipt the nominalised clauses and only have
#itu in sentences (10) to (14). Observe (15) to (19):


#15

Itu bisa meningkatkan penghasilan keluarga

#that can MEN-increase-kan PEN-product-AN family
#That can increase the family's income



#16

Itu membutuhkan kreatifitas tinggi

#that MEN-require-kan creativity high
#That requires a high creativity



#17

Itu memerlukan keahlian khusus

#that MEN-need-kan KE-expert-An special
#That needs special skills



#18

Itu bukan tindakan yang baik

#that NEG act-AN REL good
#That is not a good action


#19

Itu kesukaannya

#that KE-like-AN-3POSS
#That is his hobby
 

#Simple nominal clauses in predicate position.

#Simple nominal clauses can occur as predicate. They may be preceded by copula
#adalah or ialah. See copula adalah and ialah in the copular verbs file.


#20

Kesukaanya menonton film

#KE-like-AN-3POSS MEN-watch film  
#His hobby is watching film
 

#21

Kesukaannya adalah menonton film

#KE-like-AN-3POSS COP MEN-watch film  
#His hobby is watching film
 

#22

Pekerjaan saya adalah menanam jagung

#PE-work-AN 1SG COP MEN-plant corn
#My job is planting corn


#23

Pekerjaan saya menanam jagung

#PE-work-AN 1SG MEN-plant corn
#My job is planting corn


#Examples (20) to (23) show that the predicate is equated with the subject. We can
#negate the predicate with bukan. See bukan in the negation file. The order of the 
#sentences can be reversed.



#24

Kesukaanya bukan menonton film

#KE-like-AN-3POSS NEG MEN-watch film  
#His hobby is not watching film
 

#25

Menonton film bukan kesukaannya

#MEN-watch film NEG KE-like-AN-3POSS
#Watching film is not his hobby

#26

Pekerjaan saya bukan menanam jagung

#PE-work-AN 1SG NEG MEN-plant corn
#My job is not planting corn


#27

Menanam jagung bukan pekerjaan saya

#MEN-plant corn NEG  PE-work-AN 1SG 
#Planting corn is not my job   


#Note that adalah or ialah does not occur when negative bukan is used.


#Ungrammatical:


#28

Kesukaannya adalah bukan menonton film (0! 0 0 0)


#KE-like-AN-3POSS COP NEG MEN-watch film  
#His hobby is not watching film
 


#Ungrammatical:

#29

Pekerjaan saya adalah bukan menanam jagung (0! 0 0 0)

#PE-work-AN 1SG COP NEG MEN-plant corn
#My job is not planting corns



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 307-8). 
 

#Nominalised relative clauses  


#The description of relative clauses is presented in the relative clauses file. 
#See files 3 and 4. 

#This document describes nominalisation of relative clauses.

#A relative clause can be nominalised by deleting its head noun (Sneddon, 1996:300).


#Defining relative clauses:

#1

#Relative clause:

#Gadis yang bekerja di warung itu cantik sekali
#girl REL BER-work in shop that beautiful very
#The girl who worked in the shop is very beautiful

#Nominal clause:

yang bekerja di warung itu cantik sekali

#REL BER-work in shop that beautiful very
#The one who works in the shop is very beautiful


#2

#Relative clause:

#Orang yang mencuri sepeda saya ditangkap polisi
#person REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG DI-catch police
#The person who stole my bicycle was caught by the police

#Nominal clause:

Yang mencuri sepeda saya ditangkap polisi

#REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG DI-catch police
#The one who stole my bicycle was caught by the police


#3

#Relative clause:

#Taman yang indah itu milik Rita
#garden REL beautiful that possession Rita
#The beautiful garden  belongs to Rita


#Nominal clause:

Yang indah itu milik Rita

#REL beautiful that possession Rita
#The beautiful one  belongs to Rita


#4

#Relative clause:

#Kolam renang yang di belakang rumah besar sekali
#pond swimming REL in behind house big very
#The swimming pool which is behind the house is very big


#Nominal clause:

yang di belakang rumah besar sekali

#REL in behind house big very
#The one which is behind the house is very big



#5

#Relative clause:

#Bapak Melianus Maryen yang bupati Biak itu sangat tampan
#sir Melianus Maryen REL regent Biak that very handsome
#Mr Melianus Maryen who is the regent of Biak is very handsome


#Nominal clause:

yang bupati Biak itu sangat tampan

#REL regent Biak that very handsome
#The one who is the regent of Biak is very handsome


#Possessor topic-comment relative clauses:


#6

#Relative clause:

#Orang yang rambutnya keriting itu diminta datang ke kantor polisi
#person REL hair-NYA curly that DI-request come to office police
#The person whose hair was curly was requested to come to the police office

#Nominal clause:

Yang rambutnya keriting itu diminta datang ke kantor polisi

#REL hair-NYA curly that DI-request come to office police
#The one whose hair was curly was requested to come to the police office


#7
#Relative clause:

#Kawasan yang dipuji kebersihannya mendapat juara satu
#region REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA MEN-get champion one
#The region which has been praised for its cleaness won the championship


#Nominal clause:

yang dipuji kebersihannya mendapat juara satu

#REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA MEN-get champion one
#The one which has been praised for its cleaness won the championship


#Sneddon notes that a nominalised relative clause can take any position where
#the embedding phrase can occur (Sneddon, 1996:301)  


#8

cantik sekali yang bekerja di warung itu 

#beautiful very REL BER-work in shop that 
#The one who works in the shop is very beautiful

#9

ditangkap polisi yang mencuri sepeda saya 

#DI-catch police REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG
#The one who stole my bicycle was caught by the police


#10

milik Rita yang indah itu 

#possession Rita REL beautiful that 
#The beautiful one  belongs to Rita


#11

besar sekali yang di belakang rumah 

#big very REL in behind house 
#The one which is behind the house is very big


#12

sangat tampan yang bupati Biak itu 

#very handsome REL regent Biak that 
#The one who is the regent of Biak is very handsome


#13

diminta datang ke kantor polisi yang rambutnya keriting itu 

#DI-request come to office police REL hair-NYA curly that 
#The one whose hair was curly was requested to come to the police office


#14

mendapat juara satu yang dipuji kebersihannya ini 

#MEN-get champion one REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA 
#The one which has been praised for its cleaness won the championship


#The verbs that appear at the beginning of sentences (8) to (15) can be negated by
#tidak 'not'. There is an exception in the case of sentence (10). Sentence (10) is negated by
#bukan 'not'. See tidak and bukan in the negation file.



#15

Tidak cantik sekali yang bekerja di warung itu 

#NEG beautiful very REL BER-work in shop that 
#The one who works in the shop is not very beautiful


#16

Tidak ditangkap polisi yang mencuri sepeda saya 

#NEG DI-catch police REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG
#The one who stole my bicycle was not caught by the police


#17

Bukan milik Rita yang indah itu 

#NEG possession Rita REL beautiful that 
#The beautiful one  does not belong to Rita


#18

Tidak besar sekali yang di belakang rumah 

#NEG big very REL in behind house 
#The one which is behind the house is not very big


#19

Tidak sangat tampan yang bupati Biak itu 

#NEG very handsome REL regent Biak that 
#The one who is the regent of Biak is not very handsome


#20

Tidak diminta datang ke kantor polisi yang rambutnya keriting itu 

#NEG DI-request come to office police REL hair-NYA curly that 
#The one whose hair was curly was not requested to come to the police office


#21

Tidak mendapat juara satu yang dipuji kebersihannya ini 

#NEG MEN-get champion one REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA 
#The one which has been praised for its cleaness won the championship


#The predicate within the nominalised clause can be negated by tidak if it is a verb
#or by bukan if it is a noun.


#22

cantik sekali yang tidak bekerja di warung itu 

#beautiful very REL NEG BER-work in shop that 
#The one who does not work in the shop is very beautiful


#23

ditangkap polisi yang tidak mencuri sepeda saya 

#DI-catch police REL NEG MEN-steal bicycle 1SG
#The one who did not steal my bicycle was caught by the police


#24

milik Rita yang tidak indah itu 

#possession Rita REL NEG beautiful that 
#The ugly one belongs to Rita


#25

besar sekali yang tidak di belakang rumah 

#big very REL NEG in behind house 
#The one which is not behind the house is very big


#26

sangat tampan yang bukan bupati Biak itu 

#very handsome REL NEG regent Biak that 
#The one who is not the regent of Biak is very handsome


#27

diminta datang ke kantor polisi yang bukan rambutnya keriting itu 

#DI-request come to office police REL NEG hair-NYA curly that 
#The one whose hair was not curly was requested to come to the police office


#28

mendapat juara satu yang tidak dipuji kebersihannya ini 

#MEN-get champion one REL NEG DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA 
#The one which has not been praised for its cleaness won the first champion


#Note that the order of the subject and predicate in 
#sentences (24) to (28) can be reversed. See the original 
#sentences in (1) to (7). Sneddon notes that since the nominalised clause is a noun
#it is negated by bukan if it is placed in the predicate position. Example (29) is 
#taken from Sneddon (1996:302).



#29

Mobil saya bukan yang biru

#car 1SG NEG REL blue
#My car isn't the blue one


#Sentence (29) is an example of an equative sentence. Thus, we can have bukan preceding
#mobil saya as example (30) illustrates:


#30

Bukan mobil saya yang biru

#NEG car 1SG REL blue
#The blue one isn't my car

#the order of sentence (30) can be reversed.


#31

yang biru bukan mobil saya

#REL blue NEG car 1SG 
#The blue one isn't my car


#In examples (1) to (7) all the nominalised clauses can be negated by bukan. However,
#all the predicates must also be nominalised so that we can have equative sentences.
#See examples (32) to (38). Sentences (32) to (38) are equative sentences and therefore 
#the order of the subject and predicate in the sentences can be reversed.



#32

Bukan yang bekerja di warung itu yang cantik sekali

#NEG REL BER-work in shop that REL beautiful very
#The very beautiful one is not the one who works in the shop  
 

#33

Bukan yang mencuri sepeda saya yang ditangkap polisi

#REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG REL DI-catch police
#The one who was caught by the police wasn't the one who stole my bicycle 


#34

Bukan yang indah itu milik Rita

#REL beautiful that possession Rita
#It is not the beautiful one that belongs to Rita


#Milik Rita in (34) is a noun phrase and therefore it does not require yang.


#35

Bukan yang dibelakang rumah yang besar sekali

#REL in behind house REL big very
#The very big one is not the one which is behind the house 


#36

Bukan yang bupati Biak itu yang sangat tampan

#REL regent Biak that REL very handsome
#The very handsome one is not the regent of Biak 


#37

Bukan yang rambutnya keriting itu yang diminta datang ke kantor polisi

#REL hair-NYA curly that REL DI-request come to office police
#The one who was requested to come to the police office was not the one whose hair was curly

 
#38

Bukan yang dipuji kebersihannya yang mendapat juara satu

#REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA REL MEN-get champion one
#The one who won the first champion was not the one which has been praised for its cleaness 


#Leaving the predicate in (32) to (38) (except 34) will make the sentences
#ungrammatical, since there will then be two predicates and no subject. 
#Observe (39) to (44).


#39

#Ungrammatical:

Bukan yang bekerja di warung itu cantik sekali (0! 0 0 0)

#NEG REL BER-work in shop that beautiful very
#The very beautiful one is not the one who works in the shop  
 

#Ungrammatical:

#40

Bukan yang mencuri sepeda saya ditangkap polisi (0! 0 0 0)

#REL MEN-steal bicycle 1SG DI-catch police
#The one who was caught by the police wasn't the one stole my bicycle 


#Ungrammatical:

#41

Bukan yang di belakang rumah besar sekali (0! 0 0 0)

#REL in behind house big very
#The very big one is not the one which is behind the house 


#Ungrammatical:

#42

Bukan yang bupati Biak itu sangat tampan (0! 0 0 0)

#REL regent Biak that very handsome
#The very handsome one is not the regent of Biak 



#Ungrammatical:

#43

Bukan yang rambutnya keriting itu diminta datang ke kantor polisi (0! 0 0 0)

#REL hair-NYA curly that DI-request come to office police
#The who was requested to come to the police office was not the one whose hair was curly


#Ungrammatical:

#44

Bukan yang dipuji kebersihannya ini mendapat juara satu (0! 0 0 0)

#REL DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA MEN-get champion one
#The one who got the first champion was not the one which has been praised for its cleaness 




#Nominaliser yang can be attached to all verbs in (8) to (14). The original position
#of yang is deleted. The meaning of sentences (46) to (52) is different from sentences
#(8) to (14).  


#45

yang cantik sekali bekerja di warung itu 

#REL beautiful very BER-work in shop that 
#The very beautiful one works in the shop  
 

#46

Yang ditangkap polisi mencuri sepeda saya 

#REL DI-catch police MEN-steal bicycle 1SG
#The one who was caught by the police stole my bicycle 



#Ungrammatical:

#47

Yang milik Rita indah itu (0! 0 0 0)

#REL possession Rita beautiful that 
#The one that belongs to Rita is beautiful


#Indah  in (47) is a verb and it cannot be modified by demonstrative itu. It becomes
#a noun when it is preceded by yang as in examples (3), (10) and (34).

#Sentence (47) can be grammatical if demonstrative itu is placed at the end of the 
#nominalised clause. See (48):


#48

Yang milik Rita itu indah  

#REL possession Rita that beautiful  
#The one that belongs to Rita is beautiful


#49

Yang besar sekali di belakang rumah 

#REL big very in behind house 
#The very big one is behind the house 


#50

Yang sangat tampan itu bupati Biak 

#REL very handsome that regent Biak 
#The very handsome one is the regent of Biak 


#51

Yang diminta datang ke kantor polisi itu rambutnya keriting  

#REL DI-request come to office police that hair-NYA curly   
#The who was requested to come to the police office has a curly hair  


#52

yang mendapat juara satu dipuji kebersihannya 

#REL MEN-get champion one DI-praise KE-clean-AN-NYA
#The one who won the championship has been praised for its cleaness 



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 300-2). 
 


#Predicate nominalisation 


#This document discusses two processes of predicate nominalisation:

#suffix -NYA
#Circumfix KE-...-AN and PEN-...-AN

#Adjectival and verbal predicates can be nominalised by adding suffix -nya
#to the predicate.


#Adjectives:

#1

#Basic clause:

#Laut itu dalam
#sea that deep
#That sea is deep

#Nominalised clause:

Kami tidak dapat mengukur dalamnya laut itu

#1PL.INCL NEG can MEN-measure deep-NYA sea that
#We cannot measure the depth of that sea

#2

#Basic clause:

#Lalulintas macet
#traffic jam
#The traffic is jammed

#Nominalised clause:

Mobil Ali tidak bisa bergerak cepat karena macetnya lalulintas

#car Ali NEG can BER-move fast because jammed-NYA traffic
#Ali's car could not move fast because of the stoppage of the traffic  


#Intransitive verbs:


#3

#Basic clause:

#Kebakaran hutan meluas
#KE-burn-AN forest ME-wide

#Nominalised clause:

Meluasnya kebakaran hutan sangat mengkhawatirkan

#ME-wide-NYA KE-burn-AN forest very MEN-worry-kan
#The spread of forest burning is very worrying

#4

#Basic clause:

#Kejahatan di kota ini meningkat
#KE-cruel-AN in town this MEN-increase
#The crime in this town is increasing


#Nominalised clause:

Meningkatnya kejahatan di kota ini perlu diantisipasi

#MEN-increase-NYA KE-cruel-AN in town this need DI-anticipate
#The increase of crime in this town needs to be anticipated



#Transitive verbs:

#Unlike intransitive verbs, transitive verbs must be in the passive form.


#5

#Basic clause:

#Polisi membebaskan para tahanan
#Police MEN-free-kan PL.MRK arrest-AN
#The police freed the prisoner

#Passive:

#Para tahanan dibebaskan
#PL.MRK arrest-AN DI-free-kan
#The prisoners were freed


#Nominalised clause:

Dibebaskannya para tahanan sangat menggembirakan keluarga

#DI-free-kan-NYA PL.MRK arrest-AN very MEN-happy-kan family
#The freeing of the prisoners made the families happy


#Ungrammatical:

#6

#Nominalised clause:

Membebaskannya para tahanan sangat menggembirakan keluarga (0! 0 0 0)

#MEN-free-kan-NYA PL.MRK arrest-AN very MEN-happy-kan family
#The freeing of the prisoners made the families happy


#The order of the subject and the predicate is reversed. Suffix -nya attached
#to the predicate changes the sentence into a nominalised clause. The subject
#now becomes the possessor of the nominalised predicate.
#The whole nominalised clause is a noun phrase, which can occur in a larger
#construction.

#The predicate can contain negative, temporal markers and modals.


#7

Tidak adanya koordinasi yang baik membuat program itu kacau

#NEG exist-NYA coordination REL good MEN-make program that mess
#The absence of good coordination caused that program to be in such a mess


#8

Tidak dibebaskannya para tahanan menimbulkan pro dan kontra

#NEG DI-free-kan-NYA PL.MRK arrest-AN MEN-appear-kan pros and cons
#The not-freeing of the prisoners caused pros and cons 


#9

Akan hadirnya Bapak presiden masih menunggu konfirmasi

#will present-NYA sir president still MEN-wait confirmation
#The presence of Mr President still awaits confirmation


#10

Kami belum tahu bakal adanya pembangunan jembatan baru


#1PL.INCL NEG know will be-NYA PEN-construct-AN bridge new
#We don't know that there will be a new bridge construction 


#Adjectival predicate may have modifying adverbs.


#11

Sangat dalamnya laut itu membuat sulit para penyelam

#very deep-NYA sea that MEN-make difficult PL.MRK PEN-dive
#The very depth of the sea caused difficulty for the divers


#The nominalised adjectives and verbs can often be replaced by nouns with 
#affixation ke- ... -an or pe- ... -an.


#Circumfix ke- ... -an 

#Circumfix ke-....-an changes adjectives, verbs and other words into nouns.
#Most nouns formed through this process are abstract nouns. Some examples
#are illustrated below:


#sulit 'difficult' -> kesulitan 'difficulty'

#cantik 'beautiful' -> kecantikan 'beauty'

#sehat 'healthy' -> kesehatan 'health'

#baik 'good' -> kebaikan 'goodness, kindness'

#bebas 'free' -> kebebasan 'freedom'

#bersih 'clean' -> kebersihan 'cleaness'

#Nominalised clauses in (1), (2) and (5) can have corresponding nouns with
#ke-...-an formation. Observe the following examples:


#12

#dalamnya laut -> kedalaman laut

Kami tidak dapat mengukur kedalaman laut

#1PL.INCL NEG can MEN-measure KE-deep-AN sea that
#We cannot measure the depth of that sea


#13
#macetnya lalulintas -> kemacetan lalulintas

Mobil Ali tidak bisa bergerak dengan cepat karena kemacetan lalulintas

#car Ali NEG can BER-move fast because KE-jammed-AN traffic
#Ali's car could not move fast because of the stoppage of the traffic 


#14
#dibebaskannya para tahanan -> kebebasan para tahanan

Kebebasan para tahanan menggembirakan keluarga

#KE-free-AN PL.MRK arrest-AN very MEN-happy-kan family
#The freedom of the prisoners made the families happy


#Circumfix peN-....-an


#Verbal bases can be turned into nouns with circumfix peN- ... -an. The meaning 
#of the nouns formed by this process refer to the action expressed by the verb.


#beli 'buy' -> pembelian 'buying'

#baca 'read' -> pembacaan 'reading'

#jual 'sell -> penjualan 'selling'

#tembak 'shoot' -> penembakan 'shooting'

#bebas 'free' -> pembebasan 'freeing'


#Examples (4) and (5)  can have corresponding nouns with peN- ... -an formation.



#15
#meningkatnya kejahatan -> peningkatan kejahatan

Peningkatan kejahatan di kota ini perlu diantisipasi

#PEN-increase-AN KE-cruel-AN in town this need DI-anticipate
#The increase of crime in this town needs to be anticipated


#16

#dibebaskannya para tahanan -> pembebasan para tahanan


Pembebasan para tahanan menggembirakan keluarga

#PEN-free-AN PL.MRK arrest-AN very MEN-happy-kan family
#The freeing of the prisoners made the families happy




#For detailed explanations and examples of circumfix ke- ... -an and peN- .. -an,
#see Sneddon, 1996: 35-9.

#Nominalised predicates cannot be replaced by ke- ... -an or peN-...-an when the
#predicates have other elements such as negative, temporal markers or modals
#within the predicate. Examples (7) to (10) cannot be replaced by ke-...-an or
#peN-...-an.


#Ungrammatical:

#17

Ketidak adaan koordinasi yang baik membuat program itu kacau (0! 0 0 0)

#KE-NEG exist-AN coordination REL good MEN-make program that mess
#The absence of good coordination caused that program in such as mess


#Ungrammatical:

#18

Ketidakbebasan para tahanan menimbulkan pro dan kontra (0! 0 0 0)

#KE-NEG-free-AN PL.MRK arrest-AN very MEN-appear-kan pros and cons
#The not-freeing of the prisoners caused pros and cons 


#Ungrammatical:

#19

Keakan hadiran Bapak Presiden masih menunggu konfirmasi (0! 0 0 0)

#KE-will present-AN sir president still MEN-wait confirmation
#The presence of Mr President still awaits confirmation



#Ungrammatical:

#20

Kami belum tahu kebakal adaan pembangunan jembatan baru (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.INCL NEG know KE-will be-AN PEN-construct-AN bridge new
#We don't know that there will be a new bridge construction 



#Sentence (18) can have a different meaning. Ketidak bebasan can mean
#the prisoners are still inside the prison but they are not free. It certainly
#does not mean the prisoners are freed from the prison.


#suffix -nya can attach to two contrasting words to form a nominalised predicate.
#The pair can be adjectives or intransitive verbs.

#tinggi-rendah 'high-low'

#besar-kecil 'big-small'

#mahal-murah 'expensive-cheap'

#naik-turun 'rise-fall'

#jatuh-bangun 'fall-get.up

#timbul-tenggelam 'rise-fall'

#baik-buruk 'good-bad'



#20

Tinggi-rendahnya bangunan itu dapat diukur dengan alat ini

#high-low-NYA build-AN that can DI-measure with equipment this
#The height of the building can be measured with this equipment


#21

Besar-kecilnya jembatan ditentukan oleh lokasi geografisnya

#big-small bridge DI-determine-kan by location geography-NYA
#The size of a new bridge is determined by its geographical location


#22

Hari raya dapat mempengaruhi mahal-murahnya barang dagangan

#day holy can MEN-influence expensive-cheap-NYA good trade-AN
#Holidays can affect the cost of trading goods


#23

Naik-turunnya suhu udara di daerah ini sangat tidak menentu

#rise-fall-NYA temperature air in region this very NEG MEN-certain
#The rise and fall of the air temperature in this region is very uncertain


#24

Jatuh-bangunnya Jepang membangun ekonominya bisa menjadi model bagi negara-negara Asia

#fall-rise-NYA Japan MEN-build economy-3POSS can MEN-become model for nation-REDUP Asia
#The fall and rise of Japan in building its economy can be a model for Asian nations


#25

Baik-buruknya manajemen perusahaan ini adalah tanggung jawab kita semua

#good-bad-NYA management PER-business-AN this COP responsible 1PL.EXCL all
#The goodness and badness of the company management is all our responsibility


#Suffix -nya can also attach to an adjective or an intransitive verb and negative
#tidak.


#sukar tidaknya 'difficult NEG-nya'

#ada tidaknya 'exist NEG-nya'



#26

Sukar tidaknya masalah itu harus dibicarakan dengan kepala sekolah

#difficult NEG-NYA problem that must DI-talk-kan with head school
#The degree of difficulty of the problem must be discussed with the head of the school


#27

Pembangunan jalan tol tergantung ada tidaknya dana dari pemerintah pusat

#PEN-construct-AN road highway TER-depend be NEG-NYA fund fom government centre
#The construction of the highway depends on the availability of funds from the central government


#More examples with adjectives of measurement.


#28

#Basic clause:

#Orang itu tinggi
#person that high

#Nominalised clause:

Tingginya orang itu 160 cm

#high person that 160 cm
#The height of that person is 160 cm



#29

#Basic clause:

#daging itu berat
#meat that heavy


#Nominalised clause:

Beratnya daging itu 10 kg

#heavy-NYA meat that 10 kg
#The weight of that meat is 10 kg




#The nominalised adjective must have -nya if there is no other possessor 
#expressed.

#30

Tingginya 160 cm

#high-NYA 160 cm
#The height is 160 cm




#31

Beratnya 10 kg

#heavy-NYA 10 kg
#The weight is 10 kg




#Ungrammatical:

#32

Tinggi 160 cm (0! 0 0 0)

#high 160 cm
#The height is 160 cm



#Ungrammatical:

#33

Berat 10 kg (0! 0 0 0)

#heavy 10 kg
#The weight is 10 kg





#We can have the following nominalised clauses without -nya.


#34

Tinggi orang itu 160 cm

#high person that 160 cm
#The height of that person is 160 cm


#35

Berat daging itu 10 kg

#heavy meat that 10 kg
#The weight of that meat is 10 kg




#36

Dalam laut itu 100 m

#deep sea that 100 m
#the depth of that sea is 100 m

#The order of sentences (28) and (29) can be reversed. However, the sentences
#now become topic-coment  clauses. See file 22.


#37

Orang itu tingginya 160 cm

#person that high-NYA 160 cm
#As for the person, his height is 160 cm

#38

Daging itu beratnya 10 kg

#meat that heavy-NYA 10 kg
#As for the meat, its weight is 10 kg


#39

Laut itu dalamnya 160 m

#sea that deep-NYA 160 m
#As for that sea, its depth is 160 m


#All these examples illustrate nominalisation of adjectives referring to measure.



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 300-6). 
 

#Basic word order


#Word order in clauses has been discussed elsewhere in other testsuites 
#in the descriptions of particular constructions. This document presents
#standard word order in clauses and changes that can occur from normal word
#order.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

#The neutral or standard order
#Verbal Clauses:
#Transitive Verbal clause
#Intransitive verbal clause
#Ditransitive verbal clause
#Position of Adjuncts
#Nonverbal Clauses:
#Noun clause
#Adjective Clause
#Quantity Clause
#Prepositional Clause
#Are there variations?
#Predicate before the subject 
 

#The neutral or standard order  

#The normal or standard order of words in main clauses is subject + predicate. 


#Verbal clauses


#Transitive Verbal clause
 
#In a transitive sentence, the subject precedes the predicate.
#The object always appears after the transitive verb.


#For example:
 

#1

Bapak minum kopi

#father drink coffee
#Father drinks coffee; or
#Father drank coffee


#2

Indro menolong saya 

#Indro MEN-help 1SG
#Indro helped me


#The sentence will be ill-formed if the order of the subject, 
#the predicate and the object   of the sentence is changed.  

#For example:     


#Ungrammatical

#3

Bapak kopi minum (0! 0 0 0)

#father coffee drink
#Father drinks cofee

#Note that when the object kopi 'coffee' is placed before the predicate, the sentence is
#ill-formed.



#Intransitive verbal clause


#The order of the subject and predicate in an intransitive sentence is the same as
#the order of subject and predicate in the transitive clause where the subject always
#precedes the predicate.


For example:


#4

Kuliah mulai

#lecture begin 
#The lecture begins 


#It is common for an intransitive clause to have more than one adjunct.


#5

Hari ini kuliah mulai pada pukul sepuluh  

#day this lecture begin at strike ten
#Today the lecture begins at ten o'clock  



#Ditransitive verbal clause

#The order of ditransitive clause is Subject + Predicate + Direct Object + Indirect Object.
#In the ditransitive verbal clause, the direct object always precedes the indirect one. 
#In addition, the prepositional phrase, which contains the indirect object NP, is obligatory.


#For example:

#6

Mereka mengirim paket itu kepada kami

#3PL Men-kirim package that to 1PL.INCL
#They sent that package to us
#They sent us that package


#The sentence is ill-formed if the preposition is removed.

#Ungrammatical:

#7

Mereka mengirim paket itu kami (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL Men-kirim package that 1PL.INCL
#They sent that package to us
#They sent us that package

#With the use of applicative suffix -i on the verb, the word order of ditransitive
#clause can be changed into subject + predicate + indirect object + direct object.


#8

Mereka mengirimi kami paket itu

#3PL Men-kirim-i(LOC) 1PL.INCL package that
#They sent us that package
#The function of applicative suffix -i is to indicate that the object is
#the person or place to which the action is directed (see Sneddon J, 1999:84).

#Changing the order of (8) will cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.


#Ungrammatical

#9

Mereka mengirimi  paket itu   kami  (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL Men-kirim-i(LOC)  package that   1PL.INCL
#They sent us that package


#10

Ibu membuat secangkir teh manis untuk saya

#mother Men-make CLASS-cup tea sweet for 1SG
#Mother made    a cup of nice tea for me
#The order of (10) is Subject + Predicate + Direct Object + Indirect Object.
#Similar to (8), this order can be changed into Subject + Predicate + Indirect Object 
#+ Direct Object with the use of benefactive suffix -kan.


#11

Ibu membuatkan saya secangkir tea manis

#mother Men-make-kan 1SG CLASS-cup tea sweet
#Mother made  me a cup of nice tea


#Note that there is no preposition in  examples (8) and (11).
#Benefactive -kan indicates that the object is the beneficiary (See Sneddon J, 1996:80).


#The position of adjuncts

#The position of adjuncts in a clause is very much dependent on the characteristics
#of each individual adjunct.
#Some adjuncts can appear before or after the verb phrase.
#Some can only appear at the beginning or at the end of a clause.  
#However, there are some adjuncts that can appear in both positions. 

#The following examples illustrate the position of adjuncts in different
#places in the main clause.


#12

Rahima berjalan dengan cepatnya

#Rahima BER-walk with quick-NYA
#Rahima walked quickly


#13

Dengan gembira mereka menerima piala itu

#with happy 3PL MEN-receive trophy that 
#They received the trophy happily


#14

Kini dia harus diam

#nowadays 3SG must quiet
#Nowadays he must be quiet


#Ungrammatical:

#15

dia harus diam kini (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG must quiet nowadays 
#Nowadays he must be quiet


#16

Dahulu dia selalu makan pinang  

#previously 3SG always eat betelnut
#Earlier he always chewed betelnuts 


#17

dia dahulu selalu makan pinang  

#3SG previously eat betelnut 
#Earlier he always chewed betelnuts 



#Non-verbal clauses


#Noun Clauses


#18

Dia dokter

#3SG doctor
#He/She is a doctor


#Adjective Clauses


#19

Minuman ini panas

#drink this hot
#this drink is hot


#20

gadis itu sangat cantik

#girl that very beautiful
#That girl is very beautiful


#Quantity Clauses


#21

Anaknya lima

#anak-nya lima
#child-3SG.POSS five
#He has five children. (Lit: His children are five)


#Prepositional Clauses


#22

Dia di Sumatera sekarang

#3SG in Sumatera now
#He is in Sumatera now


#Are there variations?

#Although Indonesian is mostly an SVO or AVP type language with the word order
#subject + predicate, there  are some variations in the order of clause constituents.
#One of them is predicate + subject (by placing the predicate before the subject).


#Predicate before the subject.


#Predicate can be placed before the subject. It usually occurs in nonverbal clauses.


#Examples:


#Noun Clauses


#23

Dia guru bahasa Inggris

#3SG teacher language English
#He/She is an English teacher 


#24

guru bahasa Inggris dia 

#teacher language English 3SG 
#He/She is an English teache



#Adjective Clauses


#25

Minuman ini panas

#drink this hot
#this drink is hot


#26

panas minuman ini 

#hot drink this 
#this drink is hot


#27

gadis itu sangat cantik

#girl that very beautiful
#That girl is very beautiful


#28

sangat cantik gadis itu 

#very beautiful girl that 
#That girl is very beautiful


#Sneddon (1996:257) states that an intransitive verb can occur
#before the subject. The intransitive verb takes foregrounding
#particle -lah.


#29

Pergilah dia ke rumah orangtuanya

#go-lah 3SG to house parents-3SG.POSS
#He went to his parents' house


#30

Tersenyumlah gadis cantik itu

#TER-smile-lah girl pretty that
#That pretty girl smiles


#There are lots of examples with particle -lah attaching to 
#intransitive verbs.

#However, the order of 4 and 5 cannot be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:

#31

dia pergilah  ke rumah orangtuanya (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG go-lah to house parents-3SG.POSS
#He went to his parents' house


#The sentence is grammatical if particle -lah is omitted.


#There are cases where verbs derived from adjectives can be placed
#before the subject without attaching particle -lah to the verbs.


#Two examples below illustrate this.

  
#32

Memalukan perbuatan dia

#MEN-ashamed-KAN PER-act-AN 3SG
#His action is shameful


#33

Memburuk kondisi kesehatannya

#MEN-bad condition health-3SG.POSS
#His health condition gets worse


#The order of 32 and 33 can be reversed.


#34

perbuatan dia memalukan 

#PER-act-AN 3SG MEN-ashame-KAN 
#His action is shameful


#35

kondisi kesehatannya memburuk 

#condition health-3SG.POSS MEN-bad 
#His health condition gets worse



#Word order in copular clauses

#This document presents word order in copular clauses (See also files 13,
#14, and 15).

#The document is organised into the following sections:

#Copular Clauses with juxtaposition
#Copular clauses with adalah and ialah
#Copular verb ada


#Copular clauses with juxtaposition.
#Many Indonesian copular sentences are implicit in the word-order. 


#Structure: Subject Predicate

#1

Saya mahasiswa

#1SG student
#I am a student


#2 

Pak David dosen saya

#Sir David lecturer 1SG
#Mr David is my lecturer


#If the order is reversed the meaning will change.


#3

Dosen saya Pak David

#lecturer 1SG sir David
#My lecturer is Mr David


#4

Teman saya bukan Budi Utomo

#friend 1SG NEG Budi Utomo
#My friend is not Budi Utomo


#5

Budi Utomo bukan teman saya

#Budi Utomo NEG friend 1SG
#Budi Utomo is not my friend


#6

Wanita yang berdiri di sebelah sana itu teman saya

#woman REL BER-stand LOC part  there that friend 1SG
#the woman who stands over there is my friend


#7

Teman saya wanita yang berdiri di sebelah sana itu 

#woman REL BER-stand LOC part  there that friend 1SG
#My friend is the woman who stands over there 


#Copular clauses with adalah and ialah
#Copular forms adalah and ialah occur after the subject.


#Structure: Subject Predicate (Subj + COP + Obj)


#8

Saya adalah mahasiswa UNCEN

#1SG COP student UNCEN
#I am an UNCEN student

#UNCEN : Universitas Cenderawasih.


#9

Pak David adalah dosen saya

#Sir David COP lecturer 1SG
#Mr David is my lecturer


#If the subject and the object order is reversed the meaning will change.

#10

Mahasiswa UNCEN adalah saya

#student COP 1SG
#The UNCEN student is me


#11 

Dosen saya ialah Pak David

#Lecturer 1SG COP sir David
#My lecturer is Mr David


#The copular forms cannot precede the subject.

#Ungrammatical:

#12

Adalah saya mahasiswa (0! 0 0 0)

#COP 1SG student
#I am a student


#Ungrammatical:

#13 

Adalah Pak David dosen saya (0! 0 0 0)

#COP sir David lecturer 1SG
#Mr David is my lecturer


#The copula adalah can occur at the beginning of a sentence. Its meaning
#is the same as 'it is .... ' in English.


#Structure : Predicate Subject (COP + NP)


#14

Adalah sebuah kesalahan dia tidak mengakui perbuatannya

#COP one-CLASS KE-wrong-AN 3SG NEG MEN-admit-i PER-act-AN-3SG.POSS
#It is a mistake that he/she did not admit his action.


#15

Adalah tidak etis menanyakan gaji orang

#COP NEG ethic MEN-ask-KAN salary person
#It is not ethical asking someone's salary


#16

Adalah suatu ketidakadilan dan ketidakbenaran bagiku untuk memenuhi keinginanmu

#COP one KE-NEG-justice-AN and KE-NEG-right-AN to-1SG for MEN-full-I KE-desire-2SG
#It is not a wise and right thing for me to fulfill your desire.

#Source:
#http://choychantix.satlaser.com/2009/03/30/pernikahan-adalah-sekolah-cinta/


#17

Adalah standar Google bila halaman utamanya hanya terdiri dari satu kolom utama untuk diisi pengguna dan beberapa link.

#COP standard Google if page main-NYA only consist of one column main for DI-fulfill PEN-use and few link
#It is Google's standard if the main page consists of one main column to be filled by users and several links. 

#Source:
#http://sharemeaning.wordpress.com/2008/07/10/google-adalah-fenomena/



#Copular verb ada


#Structure 1 : Subject Predicate (Subject + Verb Ada + Object)

#The verb ada occurs after the subject when it is used as (1) an 
#intransitive verb meaning to be 'in', to be at home, to be on/at 
#hand; and (2) an intransitive verb meaning 'to have'. 

#18

Pak Rumbewas ada?

#sir Rumbewas be?
#Is Mr Rumbewas in?


#19

Pak Rumbewas ada

#sir Rumbewas be
#Mr Rumbewas is in

#20

Kami ada makanan

#1PL.EXCL be eat-AN
#We have food


#21

Dia ada jam tangan baru

#3SG be watch hand new
#She has a new watch


#22

Rumah ini ada dua kamar mandi

#house this be three room shower
#This house has three bathrooms


#If the order of words in sentences 18 to 22 is changed, the meaning of
#the sentences will change. There is, however, an exception to sentence 18.
#Sentence 18 is an interrogative sentence and therefore it is normal
#to have the verb ada preceding the subject.


#23

Ada pak Rumbewas?

#be sir Rumbewas?
#Is Mr Rumbewas in?


#The sentence is ungrammatical if the meaning is 'Mr Rumbewas is in' as 
#example 7 below illustrates.


#Ungrammatical:

#24

Ada Pak Rumbewas.  (0! 0 0 0) 

#be sir Rumbewas  
#Mr Rumbewas is in  


#When the verb ada is used as an intransitive verb meaning 'to have' 
#the word order in the sentence cannot be changed.
 

#Ungrammatical:

#25

ada kami  makanan (0! 0 0 0)

#be  1PL.EXCL eat-AN
#We have food

#Ungrammatical:

#26

ada dia jam tangan baru (0! 0 0 0)

#be 3SG watch hand new
#She has a new watch


#Ungrammatical:

#27

ada rumah ini dua kamar mandi (0! 0 0 0)

#be house this three room shower
#This house has three bathrooms


#Structure 2: Verb-Subject order (Ada + NP)


#The verb ada occurs before the subject when it is used as an 
#intransitive verb meaning 'there is' or 'there are'  
#(when we are talking about what is located at a particular place, or
#what happens at a particular time).


#28

Ada upacara bendera di lapangan Trikora

#be ceremony flag in field Trikora 
#There is a flag raising ceremony in the Trikora field 


#29

ada keajaiban di kota Kemarin 

#be KE-miracle-AN LOC town yesterday 
#There was a miracle in the town yesterday


#30

Tidak ada pertemuan besok

#NEG be PER-meet-AN tomorrow
#There is no meeting tomorrow

#Changing the order of the sentences will make the sentences 
#ungrammatical or have different meanings.

#Ungrammatical:

#31

upacara bendera ada di lapangan Trikora (0! 0 0 0)

#ceremony flag be in field Trikora 
#There is a flag raising ceremony in the Trikora field 

#Ungrammatical:

#32

keajaiban ada di kota kemarin (0! 0 0 0)

#KE-miracle-AN be in town yesterday 
#There was a miracle in the town yesterday


#Sentences 31 and 32 can have different meanings. Observe 33 and 34.


#33

upacara bendera ada di lapangan Trikora  

#ceremony flag be in field Trikora 
#The flag raising ceremony is/was in the Trikora field 


#34

keajaiban ada di kota kemarin  

#KE-miracle-AN be in town yesterday 
#The miracle was in the town yesterday




#Topic-comment Clauses

#This document presents two types of topic-comment clauses in Indonesian:

#Possessor topic-comment clause
#Object topic-comment clause

#Possessor topic-comment clause

#A possessor topic-comment clause is marked by suffix -nya which is attached
#to the possessum. The position of possessor always follows the possessum.
#Observe example (1).


#1
#Basic clause:

Nama guru bahasa Inggris itu Pak Ahyate

#name teacher language English that sir Ahyate
#The name of that teacher is Mr Ahyate


#In example (1) guru bahasa Inggris itu 'that English teacher' is the possessor.
#It follows the possessum nama 'name'. Sentence (1) can be turned into a possessor
#topic-comment clause by (1) placing the possessor at the beginning of the clause
#and (2) attaching suffix -nya into the possessum.


#2
#Topic-comment clause:

Guru bahasa Inggris itu namanya Pak Ahyate

#teacher language English that name-NYA sir Ahyate
#Concerning that English teacher, his name is Mr Ahyate


#3
#Basic clause:

Rumah ibu Sukristiningsih ada sepuluh

#house mother Sukristiningsih be ten
#Mrs Sukristiningsih has ten houses

#4
#Topic-comment clause:

Ibu Sukristiningsih rumahnya ada sepuluh

#mother Sukristiningsih house-NYA be ten
#As for Mrs Sukristiningsih, she has ten houses


#5
#Topic-comment clause:

para buruh upahnya tidak akan dibayar

#PL.mrk labour wage-NYA NEG will DI-pay
#As for the labourers, their wages will not be paid


#6
#Topic-comment clause:

Anak itu kelakuannya sangat buruk

#child that KE-attitude-NYA very bad
#As for the child, his attitude is very bad


#7
#Topic-comment clause:

Pacar saya anaknya dua

#girl.friend 1SG child-NYA two
#Concerning my girl friend, she has two children


#Nya is used even the possessor is plural. See example (5).

#Sneddon briefly mentions the issue of whether Indonesians accept a 
#first or second person topic. He quoted one example from Dardjowidjojo.
#See example 14.
#According to Sneddon, this is still a controversy among Indonesian grammarians.
#Below are examples of acceptable and unacceptable possessor 
#topic-comment clauses with first and second person.


#8
#Basic clause:

Anak saya tiga

#child 1SG three
#My children are three


#Ungrammatical:

#9
#Topic-comment clause:

Saya anaknya tiga (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG child-NYA three
#As for me, my children are three


#10
#Basic clause:

Rumah kami ada tiga

#house 1PL.INCL be three
#Our houses are three


#11
#Topic-comment clause:

#Ungrammatical:

Kami rumahnya ada tiga (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.INCL house-NYA be three
#As for us, our houses are three


#12
#Basic clause:

kamar kamu tidak pernah dibersihkan

#bedroom 2SG NEG ever DI-clean-kan
#Your bedroom is never cleaned


#13
#Topic-comment clause:

#Ungrammatical:

kamu kamarnya tidak pernah dibersihkan (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG bedroom-NYA NEG ever DI-clean-kan 
#As for you, your bedroom is never cleaned


#Sneddon quoting Dardjowidjojo (1978:165) presents example (14).


#14

Saya asalnya dari Semarang

#1SG origin-NYA from Semarang
#As for me, I come from Semarang

#Literally 'My origin is from Semarang'


#Sentence (14) is an exception. Most Indonesians use it in everyday conversation.


#Ungrammatical:

#15

Kamu asalnya dari Yogya (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG origin-NYA from Yogya
#As for you, you come from Yogya



#In informal conversation, however, the following interrogative sentences could be used
#to question first, second, or third person.


#16

kamu anaknya berapa?

#2SG child-NYA how.many?
#As for you, how many are your children


#17

kamu rumahnya di mana?

#2SG house-NYA where?
#As for you, where is your house?


#18


dia sekolahnya di mana?

#3SG school-NYA where?
#As for him, where is his school?




#Sentences (16) and (17) are ungrammatical in their affirmative forms.


#Ungrammatical:

#19

kamu anaknya lima (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG child-NYA five
#As for you, you have five children



#Ungrammatical:

#20

kamu rumahnya di Jakarta (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG house-NYA where?
#As for you, your house is in Jakarta
 

#Alienable and Inalienable nouns.

 
#A predicate can only precede the subject if the subject is inalienably
#possessed by the topic.


#Inalienable nouns:


#21
#Basic clause:

Mata Pak Ali dioperasi

#eye sir Ali DI-operate
#Mr Ali's eyes were operated on


#22
#Topic-comment clause:

Pak Ali matanya dioperasi

#sir Ali eye-NYA DI-operate
#Concerning Mr Ali, his eyes were operated on


#23
#Topic-comment clause:

Pak Ali dioperasi matanya 

#sir Ali DI-operate eye-NYA 
#Concerning Mr Ali, his eyes were operated on


#Alienable nouns:


#24
#Basic clause:

Istri Pak Ali dioperasi

#wife sir Ali DI-operate
#Mr Ali's wife was operated on


#25
#Topic-comment clause:

Pak Ali istrinya dioperasi

#sir Ali wife-NYA DI-operate
#As for Mr Ali, his wife was operated on


#Ungrammatical:

#26

Pak Ali dioperasi istrinya (0! 0 0 0)

#sir Ali DI-operate wife-NYA 
#As for Mr Ali, his wife was operated on


#Examples (21) to (26) are adapted from Sneddon (1996:280).

#Sneddon referring to Verhaar (1978) notes that mata 'eyes' is something 
#intrinsic to or part of the possessor. Thus it is inalienably possessed.
#Wife is not something inalienably possessed. It is not part of the possessor.
#The distinction between alienable and alienable nouns is reflected in the
#possessor topic-comment constructions. Only the inalienable nouns can be preceded
#by the predicate. See example (23).  

#Example (26) can have a different interpretation as example (27) illustrates:


#27

Pak Ali dioperasi istrinya  

#sir Ali DI-operate wife-NYA 
#Mr Ali was operated on by his wife

#Mr Ali's wife performed the operation on Mr Ali's body. 
 


#More inalienable nouns are presented below:



#28

Mereka itu pandangannya sempit

#3PL that view-NYA narrow
#As for them, their view is narrow


#29

Mereka itu sempit pandangannya

#3PL that narrow view-NYA 
#As for them, their view is narrow



#30

Dilihat dari bawah, orang itu besarnya seperti semut saja


#DI-see from below, person that big-NYA such.as ant just
#Seen from below, those people look as big as ants
#Lit:those people, their size is like an ant


#31


Dilihat dari bawah, orang itu seperti semut saja besarnya

#DI-see from below, person that such.as ant just big-NYA 
#Seen from below, those people look as big as ants


#32

Golongan itu suaranya bertambah hari bertambah kuat

#group that voice-NYA BER-add day BER-add strong 
#The voice of that group gets stronger day by day


#33

Golongan itu bertambah hari bertambah kuat suaranya

#group that BER-add day BER-add strong voice-NYA
#The voice of that group gets stronger day by day



#Examples (30) to (33) are adapted from Sneddon.



#Topic-comment with plural nouns


#34

#Basic clause:

Semua siswa-siswi ini berasal dari sekolah yang sama

#all student-REDUP this BER-origin from school REl same
#All of these students come from the same school


#35
#Topic-comment clause:

Siswa-siswi ini semuanya berasal dari sekolah yang sama

#student-REDUP this  all-NYA BER-origin from school REl same
#As for these students, all of them come from the same school



#36
#Basic clause

Kelima perwira muda itu sudah menikah

#KE-five officer young that already MEN-marry
#The five young officers were already married


#37
#Topic-comment clause

Perwira muda itu kelima-limanya sudah menikah

#officer young that KE-five-REDUP-NYA already MEN-marry
#As for the young officers, all five of them were already married


#Object topic-comment clauses

#An active transitive clause can be turned into an object topic-comment clause
#by (1) moving the object of the clause to the front as topic and (2) attaching
#suffix -nya to the verb. 


#38
#Basic clause:

Saya sudah mengirimkan paket itu

#1SG already MEN-send-kan package that
#I have already sent that package


#39
#Topic-comment clause:

Paket itu saya sudah mengirimkannya  

#package that 1SG already MEN-send-kan-NYA 
#Concerning that package, I have already sent it


#In (39) -nya fills the position of the object which is immediately after the 
#verb.


#The object of the clause cannot precede an active verb.

#Ungrammatical:

#40

Paket itu sudah mengirimkannya (0! 0 0 0)
 

#package that already MEN-send-kan-NYA 
#Concerning that package, (I) have already sent it


#Other examples:

#41
#Basic clause:

Saya tidak mengetahui di mana anda kuliah

#1SG NEG MEN-know-i in where 2SG study
#I did not know where you studied


#42:
#Topic-comment clause:

Di mana ada kuliah, saya tidak mengetahuinya

#in where 2SG study 1SG NEG MEN-know-i-NYA 
#where you studied, I did not know  


#43
#Basic clause:

Saya tidak menanyakan apakah dia ikut kita atau tidak

#1SG NEG MEN-ask-KAN what 3SG follow 1PL.EXCL or NEG
#I did not ask whether he joined us or not


#44
#Topic-comment clause:

Apakah dia ikut atau tidak saya tidak menanyakannya

#what 3SG follow 1PL.EXCL or NEG 1SG NEG MEN-ask-kan-NYA 
#whether he joined us or not, I did not ask 


#45
#Topic comment clause:

Kegemaran merokok susah menghentikannya

#KE-favourite-AN ME-cigarette difficult MEN-stop-kan-NYA
#Smoking habit is difficult to stop


#More examples possessor topic-comment clauses and object topic-comment clauses
#can be found in file 4.


#References:

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978 (pp. 165). 


#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 277-81). 
 


#Identifying Clauses


#Identifying clauses correspond to cleft sentences in English (Sneddon, 1996:281)
#It is one way to focus or highlight a particular element of a clause.
#In this construction particle -lah is often used.

#Observe examples (1) and (2): 

#1

#Neutral sentence:

Dokter itu mengobati saya

#doctor that MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#That doctor healed me


#2

#Identifying clause:

Dokter itulah yang mengobati saya

#doctor that-lah REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was that doctor who healed me


#In (2) dokter itu (that doctor) gets focused. the particle -lah marks
#the phrase to make it clear that it was that doctor and not someone else who
#was treating me. That doctor thus becomes the predicate of the sentence.

#Translation of sentence (2) in English would be:
#That doctor is the one who healed me.

#In example (2) yang 'who, which, that' is used to nominalise the predicate
#mengobati saya 'heal 1SG'. The nominalised relative clause now becomes the 
#subject of the clause. Without yang the sentence will be ungrammatical. Observe
#example (3):


#Ungrammatical:

#3

Dokter itulah mengobati saya (0! 0 0 0)

#doctor that-lah MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was that doctor who healed me

#Particle 'lah' cannot be inserted between a noun and a determiner or demonstrative.


#Ungrammatical:

#4

Dokterlah itu yang mengobati saya (0! 0 0 0)

#doctor-lah that REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was that doctor who healed me

#5

Dokterlah yang mengobati saya

#doctor-lah that MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was the doctor who healed me


#6

Itulah yang mengobati saya

#that-lah MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#That was the one who healed me



#It is common in English to stress the first word of the phrase.
#For example:
#THAT doctor healed me

#Indonesian also has  extra stress on the first phrase to indicate it as 
#the predicate. 

#Sneddon notes that particle -lah is common in identifying clauses but it is not
#obligatory.


#7

Dokter itu yang mengobati saya

#doctor that REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was that doctor who healed me


#The rising intonation on the first phrase dokter itu 'that doctor'
#in (7) marks the phrase as the predicate.


#The predicate can be a demonstrative pronoun, personal pronoun, or name of 
#a person. 


#8

Itu dokter yang mengobati saya

#that doctor REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#That was the doctor who healed me


#9

Itulah dokter yang mengobati saya  

#that-lah doctor REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#That was the doctor who healed me


#10

Thomas yang memperbaiki sepeda itu

#Thomas REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that
#Thomas was the one that repaired that bicycle


#11

Thomaslah yang memperbaiki sepeda itu

#Thomas-lah REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that
#Thomas was the one that repaired that bicycle


#12

Kamu yang harus bertanggung jawab

#2SG REL must BER-take-responsibility
#You are the one who must be responsible  


#13

Kamulah yang harus bertangung jawab

#2SG-lah REL must BER-take-responsibility
#You are the one who must be responsible



#Negation

#A predicate NP is negated by bukan.


#14

Bukan dokter itulah yang mengobati saya

#NEG doctor that-lah REL MEN-medicine-i 1SG
#It was not that doctor who healed me


#15

Bukan Thomaslah yang memperbaiki sepeda itu

#NEG Thomas-lah REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that
#It was not Thomas who repaired that bicycle


#16

Bukan kamulah yang harus bertanggung jawab

#NEG 2SG-lah REL must BER-take-responsibility
#It was not you who should be responsible



#Many Indonesians do not allow question words siapa 'who' and apa 'what' to be
#the subject of a basic passive clause. Instead they must occur in identifying
#constructions (Sneddon, 1996:283).


#Apa and siapa cannot occur as subject of a passive clause. Instead, the construction
#is changed to an identifying clause, with the question words as predicate. 
#The question word is the followed by yang which introduces the subject (Sneddon 1996:316).


#17

Apa yang diajarkan hari ini?

#What REL DI-taught-kan day this?
#What was taught today?


#Ungrammatical:

#18

Apa diajarkan hari ini? (0! 0 0 0)

#What DI-taught-kan day this?
#What was taught today?



#19

Siapa yang dia hukum?

#who REL 3SG punish?
#Who did he punish?


#Ungrammatical:


#20

Siapa dia hukum? (0! 0 0 0)

#who 3SG punish?
#Who did he punish?



#The subject of a passive clause cannot be a noun phrase containing
#siapa or apa, the same change being required here also (Sneddon,317).


#21

Sepeda siapa yang diperbaiki?

#bicycle who REL DI-PER-good-i?
#Whose bicycle was repaired?


#22

Pelajaran apa yang kamu ajar hari ini?

#PER-teach-AN what REL 2SG teach day this?
#What lesson did you teach today?



#Although some Indonesians allow the interrogatives to be subject of an active verb,
#many people always use an identifying construction here also (Sneddon,317). 


#23

Siapa yang mencuri bukumu?

#who REL MEN-steal book-2SG?
#Who stole your book?

#24

Apa yang membuat kamu kecewa?

#what REL MEN-make 2SG disappointed?
#What makes you disappointed?


#25

Siapa yang sakit?

#Who REL ill?
#Who was ill?


#26

Apa yang lucu?

#what REL funny?
#What is funny?



#The only exception to the occurence of a nominalised subject is if it is already 
#a noun or a pronoun. The interrogative predicate freely occurs before or after 
#the subject (Sneddon, 317).



#27

Apa ini?

#what this?
#What is this?


#28

Ini apa?

#this what?
#What is this?


#29

Siapa orang itu?

#who person that?
#Who is that person?


#30

Orang itu siapa?

#person that who?
#Who was that person?

#See more on apa and siapa in files 34 and 36.  



#The order of subject and predicate cannot be reversed in an identifying clause;
#reversal of order produces a basic clause in which the subject is a nominalised
#relative clause (Sneddon, 281).

#Identifying clause:

#31

Buku Biologi yang saya pinjam

#book biology REL 1SG borrow
#It was the biology textbook that I borrowed


#Basic clause:

#32

yang saya pinjam buku biologi

#REL 1SG borrow book biology
#What I borrowed was a biology textbook


#Identifying clause:

#33

Thomaslah yang memperbaiki sepeda itu

#Thomas-lah REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that
#It was Thomas who repaired that bicycle


#Basic clause:

#34

Yang memperbaiki sepeda itu Thomas

#REL REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that Thomas
#The one who repaired that bicycle was Thomas


#Basic clause:

#35

yang memperbaiki sepeda itu adalah Thomas

#REL REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that COP Thomas
#The one who repaired that bike was Thomas

#Note that in examples (31) and (33) the rising intonation falls on the predicate.
#Sentences (32) and (34) have normal intonation pattern.


#Note that particle -lah cannot be added to sentences (11) and (13) when the
#order of the sentences (subject and predicate) is reversed.


#Ungrammatical:

#36

Yang memperbaiki sepeda itulah Thomas (0! 0 0 0)

#REL REL MEN-PER-good-i bicycle that-lah Thomas
#The one who repaired that bicycle was Thomas


#Ungrammatical:

#37

Yang harus bertanggung jawablah kamu (0! 0 0 0)

#REL must BER-take-responsibility-lah 2SG  
#the one who must be responsible is you




#Examples (36) and (37) are nominalised relative clauses and therefore they cannot
#take particle -lah.

#Sentences (36) and (37)  can be grammatical if (1) copula adalah or ialah
#is inserted between subject and predicate or (2) particle -lah is deleted so 
#we have equated sentences. See examples (34) and (35).



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 281-3). 
 


#Double object constructions with -kan and with no suffix


#This document presents transitive verbs that take two objects.
#The verb that takes only one object is called monotransitive, whereas
#the verb that takes two objects is called ditransitive. The document
#discusses verbal suffix -kan which changes a monotransitive verb into a 
#ditransitive verb. 

#Notes: We are not concerned here with suffix -i and the verbs that can take
#both suffix -i and suffix -kan. The discussion of the verbs that can take
#both suffixes is presented in files 25 to 29. 

#Monotransitive

#The monotransitive verbs take only one (direct) object.
#The verbs indicate that the subject performs the action very 
#likely for himself (Dardjowidjoyo, 1978:118).

#1

Ayah membeli mobil baru 

#father MEN-buy car new
#Father bought a new car

#2

Susan mencari kunci garasi 

#Susan MEN-look.for key garage
#Susan is looking for the garage key 

#3

Kami membawa kotak surat

#1PL.EXCL MEN-carry box letter
#We carried a letter box 

#4

Dia memilih kemeja putih

#3SG MEN-choose shirt white
#He chose a white shirt
 
#5

Hannah mencuci mobil ini

#Hannah MEN-wash car this  
#Hannah washed this car


#Ditransitive

#In ditransitive sentences the verbs have suffix -kan. 
#Suffix -kan indicates that the subject performs the action for 
#someone else. Thus, they can have the presence of
#another object which is called indirect object. 

#6

Saya membeli mobil itu

#1SG MEN-buy car that
#I bought the car

#7

Saya membelikan mobil itu untuk Susan

#1SG MEN-buy-kan car that for Susan
#I bought the car for Susan  

#The direct object is obligatory, whereas the indirect object is optional.
#The absence of an indirect object in (8) below still implies the benefactive
#effect. 
 
#8

Saya membelikan mobil itu  

#1SG MEN-buy-kan car that
#I bought the car  (not for myself but for someone else)


#Verbs having two objects as above are called ditransitive,meaning
#'having the possibility of two objects'. Most of ditransitive verbs
#in Indonesian are marked by suffix -kan.
#Sneddon suggests two basic functions of suffix -kan:
#marking the object as patient and
#marking the object as beneficiary


#The following verbs take benefactive suffix -kan. 


#beli 'to buy'
#buat 'to make'
#baca 'to read'
#cari 'to look for'
#bawa 'to take'
#buka 'to open'
#ambil 'to take'
#tulis 'to write'
#minta 'to request'
#tutup 'to close'
#pegang 'to hold'
#panggil 'to call'
#masak 'to cook'
#jual 'to sell'
#jahit 'to sew'
#isi 'to fill'
#tawar'to offer'
#ketik 'to type'
#bayar 'to pay'
#gambar 'to draw'
#cuci 'to wash'
#saji 'to serve someone with food or dirink'
#tunggu 'to wait for'


#In the benefactive construction there are two objects. The one immediately
#follow the verb is the Indirect object, which identifies the beneficiary;
#the second is the direct object, which indicates the patient.  


#The structure of the word order of bitransitive sentences is:
#SUBJECT PREDICATE (MEN-verb.base-kan) Indirect Object  Direct Object.


#The examples below illustrated simple transitive verbs and their 
#benefactive counterparts:

#9

Susan mengambil segelas anggur

#Susan MEN-take one-glass wine
#Susan took a glass of wine

#10

Susan mengambilkan tamunya segelas anggur

#Susan MEN-take guest-3SG one-glass wine
#Susan brought her guest a glass of wine
 
 
#11

Ibu menjahit kemeja

#mother MEN-sew shirt
#Mother sewed a shirt
 

#12

Mother menjahitkan saya kemeja

#mother MEN-sew 1SG shirt
#Mother sewed me a shirt
 

#Here are more examples:

#13

Saya membelikan Rudi buku

#1SG MEN-buy Rudi book
#I bought Rudi a book

#14

Mereka membuatkan saya teh

#3PL MEN-make 1SG tea
#They made me some tea

#15

Kami membacakan anak-anak itu cerita

#1PL.EXCL MEN-read child-REDUP story
#We read the children a story


#16

Pamannya mencarikan Tono pekerjaan

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for-kan Tono PE-work-AN
#His uncle tried to find Tono a job


#17

Temannya membawakan saya buku

#friend-3SG MEN-carry-kan 1SG book
#His friend brought me some books 
 

#Note that when an indirect object follows a direct object,
#a preposition must precede the indirect object.


#18

Pamannya mencarikan pekerjaan untuk Tono 

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for-kan PE-work-AN for Tono 
#His uncle tried to find a job for Tono 


#19

Temannya membawakan buku untuk saya 

#friend-3SG MEN-carry-kan book for 1SG 
#His friend carried some books for me

#The structure of the word order of bitransitive sentences (18) and (19) is:
#SUBJECT PREDICATE (MEN-verb.base-kan) Direct Object PREP Indirect Object.
 

#The sentences will be ungrammatical if the preposition is omitted.


#Ungrammatical:


#20

Pamannya mencarikan pekerjaan Tono (0! 0 0 0) 

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for-kan PE-work-AN Tono 
#His uncle tried to find a job for Tono 


#Ungrammatical:


#21

Temannya membawakan buku saya (0! 0 0 0) 

#friend-3SG MEN-carry-kan book 1SG 
#His friend carried some books for me


#NO SUFFIX

#Sarumpaet (1977:69) suggests that the transitive verbs can have two objects
#without any suffixes attached to them. He proposed the following structure:

#Structure: Subject   me+verb.base    Direct Obj   prep  prepos.Obj


#Some of Sarumpaet's (1977) examples are presented below:

#22

Saya membeli buku untuk Ali

#1SG MEN-buy book for Ali
#I bought a book for Ali 

#23

Mereka membuat teh untuk saya

#3PL MEN-make tea for 1SG
#They made some tea for me

#24

Ayahnya membaca cerita untuk  anak itu

#father-3SG MEN-read story for child that 
#His father read a story to the boy 

#25

Pamannya mencari pekerjaan untuk -nya

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for PE-work-an for-3SG
#His uncle tried to find a job for  him 


#We argue that the examples presented cannot support the structure
#that Sarumpaet proposed above. We consider the prepositional
#constructions in (22) to (25) as adjuncts.For the sentences
#to have two subjects, suffix -kan must be attached to the verbs.
#Without suffix -kan the verbs can only indicate that their subjects 
#perform the actions for themselves. Observe the examples below:


#26

Saya membeli buku  

#1SG MEN-buy book  
#I bought a book  


#27

Mereka membuat teh  

#3PL MEN-make tea  
#They made some tea  


#28

Ayahnya membaca cerita  

#father-3SG MEN-read story  
#His father read a story  


#29

Pamannya mencari pekerjaan 

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for  
#His uncle tried to find a job  


#Now observe sentences (26) to (29) with the addition of suffix -kan
#to their verbs.


#30

Saya membelikan buku  

#1SG MEN-buy book  
#I bought a book (not for myself but for someone else) 


#31

Mereka membuatkan teh  

#3PL MEN-make tea  
#They made some tea  (not for themself but for other people) 


#32

Ayahnya membacakan cerita  

#father-3SG MEN-read story  
#His father read a story  (not for himself but for someone else) 


#33

Pamannya mencarikan pekerjaan 

#uncle-3SG MEN-look.for  
#His uncle tried to find a job (not for himself but for someone else)  

#These examples support Sneddon's arguments about two basic functions of
#suffix -kan (1) marking the object as patient and (2) marking the object 
#as beneficiary.

#There are two structures that can be used for ditransitive sentences:

#Structure 1:

#SUBJECT PREDICATE (MEN-verb.base-kan) Indirect Object  Direct Object.

#34

Mereka membuatkan saya teh 

#3PL MEN-make 1SG tea 
#They made me some tea  

#Structure 2:

#SUBJECT PREDICATE (MEN-verb.base-kan) Direct Object PREP Indirect Object  .

#35

Mereka membuatkan teh untuk saya   

#3PL MEN-make tea for 1SG
#They made some tea for me
 


#References: 
#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978 (pp. 38, 39, 
#117-118, 368-369).   


#Sarumpaet, Jan,P. The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia,
#Sahata Publications, Melbourne, 1977 (pp.68-75).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966. 




#Double object constructions with -i and -kan (file 1)

#This document presents a group of verbs that are usually called
#ditransitive verbs. The verbs have two objects: direct object and
#indirect object.  

#The document specifically discusses two distinctive
#suffixes that are usually attached to the verbs:
#Suffix -kan marks the object as a patient; and
#Suffix -i marks the object as a recepient (beneficiary).


#Sarumpaet (1977) divided verbs that take two objects into two groups:

#The first group is a group of verbs that takes suffix -i and suffix -kan.
#Suffix -i denotes the benefactive aspect of an action (doing something
#for someone). The suffix -i verbs take two objects, the indirect object
#(the beneficiary) and the direct object.

#Structure: Subject  + me + verb base + i  + Indirect Obj  + Direct Obj
#For  example:

#1

Mereka menghadiahi saya sebuah kamus

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-i 1SG one-CLASS dictionary
#They presented me a dictionary (as a gift)

#Correction: Note that Sarumpaet used prefix me-. This is not correct, the
#prefix used must be meN-. We use meN- in this testfile.

 
#Suffix -kan also denotes the benefactive aspect of an action (doing something
#for someone). The suffix -kan verbs take two objects,  
#the direct object and the indirect object which is preceded by a preposition.

#Structure: SUbject  + me + verb base + kan  + Direct Obj  + prep + Direct Obj

#For example:

#2

Mereka menghadiahkan sebuah kamus kepada saya

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary to 1SG 
#They presented a dictionary (as a gift) to me 


#The second group is a group of verbs that takes suffix -kan and no suffix.
#Suffix -kan denotes the benefactive aspect of an action similar to suffix -i
#in the above construction. The suffix -kan verbs take two objects, the indirect object
#(the beneficiary) and the direct object. The structure is similar to the suffix -i verbs.

#Structure: Subject   me+verb.base + KAN  indirect Obj    direct Obj

#For example:

#3

Saya membelikan Ali buku

#1SG MEN-buy-kan Ali book
#I bought Ali a book

#The lack of a suffix denotes the benefactive aspect of an action (doing something
#for someone). The verbs with no suffix take two objects,  
#the direct object and the indirect object which is preceded by a preposition.

#4

Saya membeli buku untuk Ali

#1SG MEN-buy book for Ali
#I bought a book for Ali  

#The following verbs belong to the second group: 

#beli 'to buy'
#buat 'to make'
#baca 'to read'
#cari 'to look for'
#bawa 'to take'
#buka 'to open'
#ambil 'to take'
#tulis 'to write'
#minta 'to request'

#In the testfile 'Double object constructions with -kan and with no suffix'
#we argued that the prepositional phrase is 
#an adjunct and therefore it is not part of the main structure of
#the no-suffix verbs.

#This document will present a group of verbs that falls into Sarumpaet's
#first group classification. That is the group of verbs that takes both
#suffix -kan and suffix -i.

#The following verbs take both -suffix -kan and suffix -i.

#kirim 'to send'
#hadiah 'present, gift'
#serah 'give'
#pinjam 'borrow'
#beri 'give'
#antar 'to accompany someone/something'
#sodor 'to offer something to someone'
#limpah 'abundant'
#tawar 'to bargain'
#beban 'burden'
#suguh 'to serve someone with food or drink'
#curah 'to pour'
#anugerah 'blessing'

#Considering suffix -kan and suffix -i clauses we found that there
#were many cases in which the word order of direct object and indirect
#object does not follow the pattern that Sarumpaet proposed above.

#Sarumpaet proposed that suffix -kan verbs have two objects, direct object, 
#and indirect object with a preposition preceding it. Recall example (2)
#which is copied below:


#5

Mereka menghadiahkan sebuah kamus kepada saya

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary to 1SG 
#They presented a dictionary (as a gift) to me 

#We found that the structure of the direct object and the indirect object
#can be reversed. Thus, it is fine to have sentence (6).


#6

Mereka menghadiahkan saya sebuah kamus

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-kan 1SG one-CLASS dictionary
#They presented me a dictionary (as a gift)

#Note that the structure of sentences with suffix -kan 
#in sentence (6) is the same as the structure of sentences
#with suffix -i in sentence (1). 


#Below we show two examples we got from the websearch:


#7

mereka menghadiahi saya buku tersebut

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-i 1SG book ter-mention
#They presented me the (mentioned) book (as a gift)

#Source: http://ekakurniawan.com/blog/buku-cindil-855.php


#8

Mama menghadiahkan saya jam tangan perak

#mother MEN-present.a.gift-kan 1SG watch hand silver
#Mother presented me a silver watch (as a gift) 

#Source: http://febi-rahmi.blog.friendster.com/2007/12/dua-orang-terkasih-yang-menghadiahkan-surga

#We will deal with the distinction between the two suffixes later in this testfile.


#Considering suffix -i the structure of the word order is fine. The direct object
#must follow the indirect object as example (1) illustrates. The sentence
#will be ungrammatical if the order is reversed. Observe example (9):


#Ungrammatical:

#9

Mereka menghadiahi sebuah kamus saya (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-kan 1SG one-CLASS dictionary
#They presented a dictionary (as a gift) (to) me 


#The sentence seems to lack a preposition which is usually present
#before an indirect object as example (2) illustrates. However, there
#will be a problem here if we try to add a prepositional phrase into the 
#sentence because verbs taking suffix -i do not require a prepositional
#phrase. We rarely found cases such as example (10):


#10

Mereka menghadiahi sebuah kamus kepada saya 

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-kan one-CLASS dictionary  to 1SG
#They presented a dictionary (as a gift) (to) me 

#Using Sarumpaet's structure for suffix -i, this sentence will be
#considered ungrammatical.


#Considering suffix -kan especially example (6) most grammars seem to 
#avoid presenting the fact that suffix -kan structure allows two different
#word orders: one with preposition (example 5) and another without preposition
#(example 6). The latter is always avoided.

 
#In this testfile we present data that show possible structure of double 
#object constructions of verbs that take suffix -kan and suffix -i with 
#data supporting them.

#We will also show what verbs are likely to fall into this category.

#Notes: We are not concerned here with locative verbs ending in -i or 
#causative verbs ending in -kan. For example:

#11

#Base word:  tidur 

#sleep
#to sleep


#12

VP: meniduri

#MEN-sleep-i
#to sleep with someone (to have sex with), to sleep on something.


#13

VP: menidurkan

#MEN-sleep-kan
#to put (someone) to sleep


#14

Base word: naik

#climb'
#to climb


#15

VP: menaiki

#MEN-climb-i
#to go up on something


#16

VP: menaikkan

#MEN-climb-kan
#to raise (someone, something)

#We will deal with these verbs in a different testfile.
 



#The following verbs are the verbs that can take suffix -kan and suffix -i. 

#hadiah 'present, gift'
#sodor 'to offer something to someone'
#beban 'burden'
#suguh 'to serve someone with food or drink'
#anugerah 'blessing'
#tawar 'to bargain'
#pinjam 'borrow'
#antar 'to accompany someone/something'
#limpah 'abundant'
#curah 'to pour'
#ajar 'to teach'
#kirim 'to send'
#beri 'to give'



#We have divided the verbs into three different groups.
#The ordering of the verbs is based on their similarities in 
#verb affixes formation and other special characteristics.


#A. The following verbs cannot be used in sentences without having
#any affixes attach to the verb.

#serah 'surrender'
#hadiah 'present, gift'
#sodor 'to offer something to someone'
#beban 'burden'
#suguh 'to serve someone with food or drink'
#anugerah 'blessing'


#17

base word: serah

#surrender
#to surrender, to give up

#This verb needs affixes in order to be used in a sentence.

#Ungrammatical:


#18

Saya serah (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG surrender
#I surrender, I give up


#19

Saya menyerah

#1SG MEN-surrender
#I give up, I surrender

#This is a well-formed sentence.
#The verb menyerah is an intransitive verb.


#When we add suffix -kan to the verb base, it changes the verb into
#a transitive verb.


#20

Saya serahkan diri

#1SG surrender self
#I surrender myself


#21

Saya menyerahkan diri

#1SG MEN-surrender self
#I surrender myself

#The sentence is ungrammatical if suffix -kan or direct object
#is removed. Both must be present. One cannot occur without
#the other.

#Ungrammatical:

#22

Saya menyerah diri (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG MEN-surrender self
#I surrender myself


#Ungrammatical:

#23

Saya menyerahkan (0! 0 0 0)  

#1SG MEN-surrender  
#I surrender  

#Sentence (23) can be grammatical if a direct object is present. 


#Sentence (20) and (21) implies another object.
#The object must be a prepositional phrase. Observe (24) and (25).


#24

Saya serahkan diri kepada polisi

#1SG surrender self to police
#I surrender myself to the police


#25

Saya menyerahkan diri kepada polisi

#1SG surrender self to police
#I surrender myself to the police
 

#Note: The difference between (24) and (25) is that sentence 
#(24) is mostly used in non-standard Indonesian, whereas sentence (25)
#is more formal.

#Both sentences are ungrammatical if the preposition is removed.


#Ungrammatical:

#26

Saya serahkan diri polisi (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG surrender self police
#I surrender myself to the police


#Ungrammatical:

#27

Saya menyerahkan diri polisi (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG surrender self police
#I surrender myself the police
 


#Double object constructions with -i and -kan (file 2)


#Positions of the objects in relation to suffix -kan and suffix -i.

#The choice of suffix -kan or suffix -i determines
#which object can occur immediately after them.  


#Suffix -kan

#1

Mereka menyerahkan kunci-kunci jawaban itu kepada kami

#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-kan key-REDUP answer-AN that to 1PL.EXCL
#They handed over the answer key to us 

#Sentence (1) shows that direct object immediately follows the -kan verb. 


#Suffix -i

#2

Mereka menyerahi kami kunci-kunci jawaban itu 

#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-i 1PL.EXCL key-REDUP answer-AN that  
#They gave us the answer key 

#Sentence (2) shows two objects following the -i verb. The first object
#is the indirect object and the second one is the direct object.
 

#Below we show what happens if the indirect object immediately follows
#the -kan verb and the direct object after the -i verb. 


#3

Mereka menyerahkan kami kunci-kunci jawaban itu  

#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-kan 1PL.EXCL key-REDUP answer-AN that  
#They gave us the answer key 
 

#This sentence seems fine. The question is whether it still has benefactive effect
#when the indirect object (kami '1PL.EXCL) is removed.


#4

Mereka menyerahkan kunci-kunci jawaban itu  
 
#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-kan key-REDUP answer-AN that 
#They handed over the answer key  

#The answer to the question is YES! There is a benefactive effect 
#in sentence (4). 
#The semantics of the verb imply a beneficary.  Someone should receive 
#the answer key. Thus, it is natural to have a prepositional phrase after
#the direct object as sentence (1) illustrates.
#Sentence (4) is well-formed because the -kan verb needs a direct object to 
#follow it.


#In example (5) we replace kunci-kunci jawaban itu 'the answer key' with
#kami '1PL.EXCL'. Kami thus becomes the direct object of the verb menyerahkan.


#5

Mereka menyerahkan kami

#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-kan 1PL.EXCL  
#They handed us over



#Now we show why the occurence of direct object after the -i verb 
#is ungrammatical. 

#Recall sentence (2). The sentence shows that the indirect object must occur
#immediately after the -i verb.

#In the following sentence we change the order of the two objects.
#Sentence (6) shows the direct object occuring immediately after the -i verb.


#6

Mereka menyerahi kunci-kunci jawaban itu kami  
 
#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-i key-REDUP answer-AN that to 1PL.EXCL
#They handed us over to the answer key

#Syntactically the sentence is fine because the verb requires two objects
#without an intervening preposition after the verb.
#However, semantically the sentence is weird.



#Below we try to place only one object after the -i verb.


#Ungrammatical:

#7

Mereka menyerahi kunci-kunci jawaban itu (0! 0 0 0)
 
#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-i key-REDUP answer-AN that  
#They handed over the answer key  

#Unlike suffix -kan, this sentence is ungrammatical because the -i verb
#needs two objects to occur immediately after the -i verb.  
#In addition, the sentence is weird. Kunci-kunci jawaban 'the answer key'
#cannot be the recepient of a given thing.


#Ungrammatical:

#8

Mereka menyerahi kami (0! 0 0 0)
 
#3PL MEN-hand.sth.over-i  1PL.EXCL
#They handed over us

#The sentence is good because kami '1PL.EXCL' can be the recipient 
#of a given thing. However, it is incomplete. 
#The sentence is not grammatical without the presence of another object following
#the first object. The first object to occur after the verb is the direct object.
#The indirect object follows the direct object. 
#See sentence (2) above.  



#9

#Base word: 

sodor

#offer something to someone
#to offer something to someone 

#This verb needs affixes in order to be used in a sentence.
#It also needs an object after the verb.

#Ungrammatical:

#10

Saya sodor  (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG offer.sth.to.so  
#I offered (something to someone) 


#Suffix -kan

#11

Saya sodorkan sebuah rokok kepada Amir 

#1SG offer.sth.to.so-i one-CLASS cigarette to Amir
#I offered a cigarette to Amir


#Suffix -i

#12


Saya sodori Amir sebuah rokok  

#1SG offer.sth.to.so-i Amir one-CLASS cigarette
#I offered Amir a cigarette   


#Sentences (11) and (12) are mostly used in non-standard Indonesian.
#Standard Indonesian uses affixes MEN- -Kan or MEN- -i as examples
#(13) and (15) illustrate:


#13

Saya menyodorkan sebuah rokok kepada Amir 

#1SG MEN-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS cigarette to Amir
#I offered a cigarette to Amir


#14


Saya menyodorkan Amir sebuah rokok  

#1SG MEN-offer.sth.to.so-kan Amir one-CLASS cigarette
#I offered Amir a cigarette   


#15


Saya menyodori Amir sebuah rokok  

#1SG MEN-offer.sth.to.so-i Amir one-CLASS cigarette
#I offered Amir a cigarette   



#Ungrammatical:

#16

Saya menyodori sebuah rokok (0! 0 0 0) 

#1SG MEN-offer.sth.to.so-i one-CLASS cigarette
#I offered (Amir) a cigarette   


#17

#Ungrammatical:

Saya menyodori Amir  (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG MEN-offer.sth.to.so-i Amir 
#I offered Amir (a cigarette)   


#B. The following verbs can have MEN- prefixes without having any suffixes.
#The MEN- verbs, however, only have one object.
#In order to have two objects the verbs must have suffix -kan or suffix -i.

#tawar 'to bargain'
#pinjam 'borrow'
#antar 'to accompany someone/something'
#limpah 'abundant'
#curah 'to pour'


#18

#Base word: 

tawar

#bargain
#to bargain, to offer


#19

Dia menawar harga mobil itu

#3SG MEN-bargain price car that
#He bargained for the price of the car (ask for a cheaper price)

#Suffix -kan

#20

Kami menawarkan harga yang murah kepada mereka

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-kan price REL cheap to 3PL
#We offered a cheap price to them  


#21

Kami menawarkan harga yang murah  

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-kan price REL cheap  
#We offered a cheap price

#Two possible meanings:
#1. We offer (them) a cheap price
#2. We lower our price and offer a cheaper one. 
 

#22

Kami menawarkan mereka

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-kan 3PL  
#We offered them 

#This sentence certainly does not mean we offered them a cheap price.


#23 

Kami menawari mereka harga yang murah  

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-i 3PL price REL cheap  
#We offered them a cheap price


#Ungrammatical:

#24 

Kami menawari harga yang murah (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-i price REL cheap  
#We offered (them) a cheap price


#Ungrammatical:

#25
 
Kami menawari harga yang murah kepada mereka (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL MEN-bargain-i price REL cheap to 3PL 
#We offered a cheap price to them

#Suffix -i does not allow a prepositional phrase.



#C. The following verbs can have two objects without suffix -kan or
#suffix -i.

#ajar 'to teach'
#kirim 'to send'
#beri 'to give'



#26

#Base word: 

ajar

#teach
#to teach


#27

Pak Rumbino mengajar Bahasa Indonesia  

#sir Rumbino MEN-teach language Indonesia
#Mr Rumbino taught Indonesian  


#28

Pak Rumbino mengajar kami   

#sir Rumbino MEN-teach language 1PL.EXCL
#Mr Rumbino taught us  


#29

Pak Rumbino mengajar Bahasa Indonesia kepada kami

#sir Rumbino MEN-teach language Indonesia to 1PL.EXCL
#Mr Rumbino taught Indonesian to us


#30

Pak Rumbino mengajar kami Bahasa Indonesia  
 
#sir Rumbino MEN-teach  1PL.EXCL language Indonesia 
#Mr Rumbino taught us Indonesian  


#Suffix -kan 

#31

Pak Rumbino mengajarkan Bahasa Indonesia kepada kami
 
#sir Rumbino MEN-teach-kan language Indonesia to 1PL.EXCL
#Mr Rumbino taught Indonesian to us


#32

Pak Rumbino mengajarkan kami Bahasa Indonesia   

#sir Rumbino MEN-teach-kan  1PL.EXCL language Indonesia 
#Mr Rumbino taught us Indonesian  



#Suffix -i
 
#33

Pak Rumbino mengajari kami Bahasa Indonesia  
 
#sir Rumbino MEN-teach-i  1PL.EXCL language Indonesia 
#Mr Rumbino taught us Indonesian  


#Ungrammatical:


#34

Pak Rumbino mengajari Bahasa Indonesia (0! 0 0 0) 
 
#sir Rumbino MEN-teach-i language Indonesia  
#Mr Rumbino taught Indonesian  


#Ungrammatical:


#35

Pak Rumbino mengajari Bahasa Indonesia kepada kami (0! 0 0 0)

#sir Rumbino MEN-teach-i language Indonesia to 1PL.EXCL
#Mr Rumbino taught Indonesian to us



#References: 

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978 (pp. 38, 39, 
#117-118, 368-369).   

#Sarumpaet, Jan,P. The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia,
#Sahata Publications, Melbourne, 1977 (pp.68-75).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,1996. 


#Double object constructions and passive voice (file 1) 


#This document presents double object in passive clause construction.

#The document specifically discusses the distinction between
#suffix -kan and suffix -i in passive clauses. 

#The document only presents passive type 1, based on Dardjowidjojo's classification; see 
#file 12 for more on passives.


#For comparison passive clauses are presented with their active clause
#counterparts.


#We can construct passive clauses with double object using
#the following verbs: 

#kirim 'to send'
#hadiah 'present, gift'
#serah 'give'
#pinjam 'borrow'
#beri 'give'
#antar 'to accompany someone/something'
#sodor 'to offer something to someone'
#limpah 'abundant'
#tawar 'to bargain'
#beban 'burden'
#suguh 'to serve someone with food or drink'
#curah 'to pour'
#anugerah 'blessing'




#Active Clauses:

#Suffix -kan

#1

Mereka menghadiahkan sebuah kamus kepada saya

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-kan one-CLASS dictionary to 1SG 
#They presented a dictionary (as a gift) to me 

#Suffix -i

#2

Mereka menghadiahi saya sebuah kamus

#3PL MEN-present.a.gift-i 1SG one-CLASS dictionary
#They presented me a dictionary (as a gift)



#Passive Clauses

#Suffix -kan:

#3

Sebuah kamus dihadiahkan kepada saya

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-kan to 1SG
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift) to me


#Preposition oleh 'by' in (4) is rarely used in this construction.

#4

Sebuah kamus dihadiahkan kepada saya oleh mereka 

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-kan to 1SG by 3PL 
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift) to me by them


#Sentences with suffix -kan:


#5

Sebuah kamus dihadiahkan mereka kepada saya

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-kan 3PL to 1SG
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift) (by) them to me


#6

Sebuah kamus dihadiahkan saya kepada mereka

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-kan 1SG to 3PL
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift) (by) me to them


#7

Saya dihadiahkan sebuah kamus kepada mereka

#1SG  DI-present.a.gift-kan one-CLASS dictionary to 3PL
#I was presented (as a gift) (by) a dictionary to them


#There is a clear distinction between suffix -kan and suffix -i. 
#Observe the following examples:

#8

Saya dihadiahkan mereka

#1SG  DI-present.a.gift-kan 3PL  
#I was presented (as a gift) by them 

#One meaning: 'I was the gift that was being presented' by them

#9

Mereka dihadiahkan saya

#3PL DI-present.a.gift-kan 1SG  
#They were presented (as a gift) by me 

#One meaning: 'They were the gift that was being presented by me'


#See the difference in meaning with suffix -i on examples (19) and (20).

#The meaning of sentences (8) and (9) changes when we add two objects
#in a sequence after the suffix - verbs (examples 10 and 11) or two objects
#with a preposition in between as examples (5, 6, and 7) illustrate.


#10

Saya dihadiahkan mereka sebuah kamus  

#1SG  DI-present.a.gift-kan 3PL one-CLASS dictionary
#I was presented (as a gift) a dictionary by them


#11

Mereka dihadiahkan saya sebuah kamus

#3PL DI-present.a.gift-kan 1SG one-CLASS dictionary
#They were given a dictionary (as a gift) by me




#Ungrammatical:

#12

Sebuah kamus dihadiahkan (0! 0 0 0)

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-kan
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift)

#Ungrammatical:

#13

Saya dihadiahkan (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG DI-present.a.gift-kan
#I was presented (as a gift)


#Ungrammatical:

#14

Sebuah kamus mereka dihadiahkan (0! 0 0 0)

#one-CLASS dictionary 3PL DI-present.a.gift-kan
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift) to them



#Suffix -i

#15

Saya dihadiahi sebuah kamus oleh mereka

#1SG DI-present.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary by 3PL
#I was presented a dictionary (as a gift) by them

#16

Mereka dihadiahi sebuah kamus oleh saya

#3PL DI-present.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary by 1SG
#They were prsented a dictionary (as a gift) by me


#Sentences with suffix -i:


#17

Sebuah kamus dihadiahi saya oleh mereka

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-i 1SG by 3PL
#A dictionary was presented me (as a gift) by them
 

#18

Sebuah kamus dihadiahi mereka oleh saya

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.a.gift-i 3PL by 1SG
#A dictionary was presented them (as a gift) by me


#See the contrast in meaning between suffix -i in examples (19-20) below
#and suffix -kan in examples (8) and (9).


#19

Saya dihadiahi mereka  

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i 3PL  
#I was presented (a gift) them  

#Two meanings:
#'I was given a gift by them'
#'I was given them (as a gift)'


#20

Mereka dihadiahi saya

#3PL DI-present.as.a.gift-i 1SG  
#They were presented (a gift) me  

#Two meanings:
#'They were given a gift by me'
#'They were given me (as a gift)'


#21

Saya dihadiahi sebuah kamus

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary
#I was presented a dictionary (as a gift)

#Two meanings:
#'I was given a present by a dictionary'
#'I was given a dictionary (as a gift)


#22

Sebuah kamus dihadiahi saya

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.as.a.gift-i 1SG
#A dictionary was presented (a gift) me  

#TWo meanings: 
#'A dictionary was given a gift by me'
#'A dictionary was given me (as a gift)


#The meaning is unambiguous when we have two objects in a sequence
#or two objects with preposition oleh 'by' between the objects.


#23

Saya dihadiahi mereka sebuah kamus

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i 3PL one-CLASS dictionary
#I was presented a dictionary (as a gift) by them


#24

Saya dihadiahi sebuah kamus mereka

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary 3PL
#I was presented them (as a gift) by a dictionary


#25

Saya dihadiahi sebuah kamus oleh  mereka

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i one-CLASS dictionary by 3PL
#I was presented a dictionary (as a gift) by them


#26

Saya dihadiahi mereka oleh sebuah kamus

#1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i 3PL by one-CLASS dictionary
#I was presented them (as a gift) by a dictionary


#Ungrammatical:

#27

Saya sebuah kamus dihadiahi (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.as.agift-i 
##I was presented a dictionary (as a gift)


#Ungrammatical:

#28

Sebuah kamus saya dihadiahi

#one-CLASS dictionary 1SG DI-present.as.a.gift-i
#A dictionary was presented me (as a gift)


#Ungrammatical:

#29

Saya dihadiahi (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG DI-present.as.agift-i 
#I was presented (as a gift)

#Ungrammatical

#30

Sebuah kamus dihadiahi (0! 0 0 0)

#one-CLASS dictionary DI-present.as.a.gift-i 
#A dictionary was presented (as a gift)


#Double object constructions and passive voice (file 2) 


#1

#Baseword:

pinjam

#borrow
#to borrow


#Active Clauses

#Suffix -kan

#2

Ayah meminjamkan sepeda baru kepada Zakeus

#father men-borrow-kan bicycle new to Zakeus
#Father lent a new bicycle to Zakeus


#Suffix -i:

#3

Ayah meminjami Zakeus sepeda baru

#father men-borrow-i Zakeus bicycle new  
#Father lent Zakeus a new bicycle  

#The meaning of sentences (2) and (3) will change if the order
#of the sentences is changed.

#Suffix -kan:

#4

Ayah meminjamkan Zakeus kepada sepeda baru

#father men-borrow-kan Zakeus to  bicycle new 
#Father lent Zakeus to a new bicycle  


#Suffix -i:

#5

Ayah meminjami sepeda baru  Zakeus 

#father men-borrow-i bicycle new  Zakeus 
#Father lent Zakeus to a new bicycle


#Passive clauses:

#Suffix kan:

#6

Zakeus dipinjamkan ayah sepeda baru

#Zakeus DI-borrow-kan father bicycle new
#Zakeus was lent a new bicycle by father

#This sentence has the same meaning as setence (13).
#However, when one object is omitted the meaning of the 
#verb changes. See (7) below:


#7

Zakeus dipinjamkan ayah  

#Zakeus DI-borrow-kan father  
#Zakeus was loaned by father (to someone else) 



#8

Sepeda baru dipinjamkan ayah kepada Zakeus

#bicycle new DI-borrow-kan father to Zakeus
#A new bicycle was lent to Zakeus by father


#9

Sepeda baru dipinjamkan kepada Zakeus

#bicycle new DI-borrow-kan to Zakeus
#A new bicycle was lent to Zakeus 


#10

Sepeda baru dipinjamkan Zakeus

#bicycle new DI-borrow-kan Zakeus
#A new bicycle was lent by Zakeus (to someone else) 


#Ungrammatical:

#11

Sepeda baru Zakeus dipinjamkan (0! 0 0 0)

#bicycle new Zakeus DI-borrow-kan 
#A new bicycle was lent by Zakeus (to someone else) 



#Ungrammatical:

#12

Sepeda baru dipinjamkan (0! 0 0 0)

#bicycle new DI-borrow-kan  
#A new bicycle was lent  


#Suffix -i:


#13

Zakeus dipinjami Ayah sepeda baru  

#Zakeus DI-borrow-i father bicycle new
#Zakeus was lent a new bicycle by father

 
#14

Zakeus dipinjami ayah  

#Zakeus DI-borrow-i father  
#Zakeus was lent by father  


#15

Sepeda baru dipinjami Zakeus  

#bicycle new DI-borrow-i Zakeus  
#A new bicycle was lent by Zakeus



#Sentences with suffix -i:


#16

Sepeda baru dipinjami Ayah Zakeus

#bicycle new DI-borrow-i father Zakeus
#A new bicycle was lent Zakeus by father


#17

Sepeda baru dipinjami Zakeus Ayah

#bicycle new DI-borrow-i Zakeus father
#A new bicycle was lent father by Zakeus


#Ungrammatical:

#18

Zakeus Ayah dipinjami sepeda baru (0! 0 0 0)

#Zakeus father DI-borrow-i bicycle new
#Zakeus was lent a new bicycle by father


#Ungrammatical:

#19

dipinjami Zakeus Ayah  sepeda baru (0! 0 0 0)

#DI-borrow-i Zakeus father bicycle new
#Zakeus was lent a new bicycle by father


#Ungrammatical:

#20

Zakeus dipinjami (0! 0 0 0)  

#Zakeus DI-borrow-i  
#Zakeus was lent  


#21

Sepeda baru dipinjami (0! 0 0 0)

#bicycle new DI-borrow-i  
#A new bicycle was lent  


#22

#Base word:

suguh

#serve someone with food or drink
#to serve someone with food or drink


#Active Clauses:

#Suffix -kan:


#23

Aminah menyuguhkan secangkir teh manis kepada Doan

#Aminah men-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS tea sweet to Doan
#Aminah offered a nice cup of tea to Doan

#Suffix -i:


#24

Aminah menyuguhi Doan secangkir teh manis  

#Aminah men-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS tea sweet to Doan
#Aminah offered a nice cup of tea to Doan


#Passive clauses:

#Suffix -kan:

#25

Secangkir teh manis disuguhkan Aminah  kepada Doan

#one-CLASS tea sweet DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan  Aminah  to Doan
#A nice cup of tea was offered by Aminah to Doan


#26

Secangkir teh manis disuguhkan kepada Doan

#one-CLASS tea sweet DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan to Doan
#A nice cup of tea was offered to Doan


#27

Doan disuguhkan secangkir teh manis oleh Aminah 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS tea sweet by Aminah
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah


#28

Doan disuguhkan Aminah secangkir teh manis  

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan Aminah one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah 


#29

Doan disuguhkan secangkir teh manis  

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS tea sweet  
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea  


#30

Doan disuguhkan Aminah 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan Aminah
#Doan was offered Aminah

#One meaning: 'Aminah was the food or the thing that Doan enjoyed'.


#31

Secangkir teh manis disuguhkan Doan

#one-CLASS sweet tea DI-offer.sth.so-kan Doan
#A nice cup of tea was offered Doan

#One meaning: 'Doan was the thing being enjoyed by the nice cup of tea'.


#Ungrammatical:

#32

Doan Aminah disuguhkan secangkir teh manis (0! 0 0 0)  

#Doan Aminah  DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah 


#33

Secangkir teh manis disuguhkan Aminah Doan

#one-CLASS tea sweet DI-offer.sth.to.so-kan  Aminah  to Doan
#A nice cup of tea was offered Doan by Aminah 

#This is grammatical although its meaning is weird.



#Suffix -i:

#34

Doan disuguhi secangkir teh manis oleh Aminah 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i one-CLASS tea sweet by Aminah
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah


#35

Doan disuguhi Aminah secangkir teh manis 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i Aminah one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah


#36

Doan disuguhi Aminah secangkir teh manis 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i Aminah one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered Aminah by a nice cup of tea 


#37

Doan disuguhi Aminah 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i Aminah
#Doan was offered Aminah

#Two meanings: 
#'Aminah was the food or the thing that Doan enjoyed'.
#'Doan was offered (some food) by Aminah 


#38

Doan disuguhi secangkir teh manis 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea 

#Two meanings: 
#'A nice cup of tea was the the thing that DOan enjoyed'.
#'Doan was offered (some food) by a nice cup of tea


#The meaning of (37) and (38) is unambiguous when we have two objects in
#a sequence or two objects with preposition in between after the suffix
#-i verbs. See examples (34 to 36).



#Ungrammatical:

#39

Doan Aminah disuguhi  secangkir teh manis (0! 0 0 0) 

#Doan Aminah DI-offer.sth.to.so-i one-CLASS tea sweet 
#Doan was offered a nice cup of tea by Aminah 


#Ungrammatical:

#40

Doan disuguhi (0! 0 0 0) 

#Doan DI-offer.sth.to.so-i  
#Doan was offered  



#References: 

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978.   

#Double object constructions and passive voice (file 3) 


#This document presents a group of ditransitive verbs that take instrumental 
#suffix -kan and applicative suffix -i.

#The verbs taking suffix -kan and suffix -i have two objects.
#Suffix -kan marks the object as an instrument; and
#Suffix -i marks the object as a location of the action. 

#The following verbs  (adapted from Sneddon, 1996) take instrumental suffix -kan.
#Some nouns that are usually paired with the verbs are provided.

#potong (parang, pisau) chop with (a machete, a knife)
#cukur  (pisau) shave with (a knife)
#ketok (palu) knock (with a hammer)
#tembak (pistol) shoot with ( a pistol)
#cambuk (tali) whip with (a rope)
#tutup (kain) cover with (a cloth)
#balut (wrap) cover with (plaster)
#cengkeram (kuku) grasp with (talons)


#Instrumental -kan

#Structure: SUBJECT PREDICATE (meN + verb.base + kan) INS.OBJ PREP DIR.OBJ

#Preposition ke and pada are usually used with instrumental -kan.
#Preposition dengan 'with' is usually used with suffix -i.
#For comparison instrumental -kan sentences are presented with their
#suffix -i counterparts.


#Examples:


#1

#Base word: 

pukul

#hit, beat
#to hit, to beat


#2

Kepala desa memukulkan rotan pada sekretarisnya  

#head village MEN-hit-kan rattan to secretary-3SG  
#The head of the village use the rattan to hit his secretary  


#3

Kepala desa memukuli sekretarisnya dengan rotan

#head village MEN-hit-i secretary-3SG with rattan
#The head of the village hit his secretary with a rattan



#4

#Base word:

tikam

#stab
#to stab


#5

Anton menikamkan sebuah pisau pada tubuh Sopater

#Anton men-stab-kan one-CLASS knife to body Sopater with 
#Anton thrusts a knife into Sopater's body


#6

Anton menikami tubuh Sopater dengan sebuah pisau

#Anton men-stab-i body Sopater with one-CLASS knife
#Anton stabbed Sopater's body with a knife


#7

#Base word:

ikat

#tie
#to tie


#8

Simon mengikatkan kain merah pada kaki kirinya

#Simon MEN-tie-kan cloth red to leg left-3SG
#Simon tied a red cloth around his left leg


#9

Simon mengikati kaki kirinya dengan kain merah 

#Simon MEN-tie-i leg left-3SG with cloth red 
#Simon tied his left leg with a red cloth  



#Transitive verbs pukul 'hit', tikam 'stab' and ikat 'tie' 
#may or may not need suffix -i to mark the object as 
#a location of the action. The object becomes locative when they are
#placed immediately after the transitive verbs. See the sentences 
#below and compare them with sentences (3), (6),and (9).   


#10

Kepala desa memukul sekretarisnya dengan rotan

#head village men-hit secretary-3SG with rattan
#The head of the village hit his secretary with a rattan

#11

Anton menikam tubuh Sopater dengan sebuah pisau

#Anton men-stab body Sopater with one-CLASS knife
#Anton stabbed Sopater's body with a knife


#12

Simon mengikat kaki kirinya dengan kain merah 

#Simon MEN-tie leg left-3SG with cloth red 
#Simon tied his left leg with a red cloth  


#Sentences (10-12) show that the verbs may or may not take suffix -i.

#Note that to change the direct object as an instrument suffix -kan
#is required. 
#Observe the following sentences:
 

#13

Anton menikam tubuh Sopater  

#Anton men-stab body Sopater  
#Anton stabbed Sopater's body  


#14

Anton menikamkan tubuh Sopater  

#Anton men-stab-kan body Sopater  
#Anton used Sopater's body to stab   



#Applicative -i

#The following verbs take applicative suffix -i.
 
#muat 'load'
#lampir 'enclose'
#lekat 'glue, stick'  
#hujan 'rain'
#alir 'flow'
#tumpuk 'pile up'
#tempel 'stick'



#Structure: SUBJECT PREDICATE (meN + verb.base + i) LOC.OBJ PREP DIR.OBJ  


#Examples:


#15 

#Base word:

muat

#load
#to load


#16

Kami memuati kapal itu dengan bahan-bahan bangunan

#1PL.EXCL MEN-load-i boat that with material-REDUP build-AN
#We loaded the boat with building materials


#In (16) kapal itu 'the boat' occurs immediately after the -i verb.
#This is a typical sentence of applicative -i which marks the object
#as a location of the action.


#In a passive construction the direct object kapal itu 'the boat'
#become the subject of the sentence.


#17

Kapal itu dimuati bahan-bahan bangunan

#boat that DI-load-i  material-REDUP build-AN
#The boat was loaded with building materials


#Unlike suffix -kan which maintains its preposition ke 'to' (see example 19)
#preposition dengan is omitted in applicative -i passive construction 
#as example (17) illustrates.  



#Suffix -kan:

#See the difference in the structure of sentences (18) below and 
#sentence (16).

#18

Kami memuatkan bahan-bahan bangunan ke kapal itu 

#1PL.EXCL MEN-load-kan material-REDUP build-AN to boat that   
#We loaded building materials to the boat 


#In sentence (18) kapal 'boat' is the object of preposition ke 'to'. 

#In a passive construction the direct object bahan-bahan bangunan 'building materials'
#becomes the subject of the sentence. Actor subject is always omitted.


#19

Bahan-bahan bangunan dimuatkan ke kapal itu

#material-REDUP DI-load-kan to boat that
#The building materials were loaded into the boat

#Note that preposition ke 'to' occurs again in (19). Removing the preposition
#will cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.


#Ungrammatical:

#20

Bahan-bahan bangunan dimuatkan kapal itu (0! 0 0 0)

#material-REDUP DI-load-kan boat that
#The building materials were loaded into the boat


#Ungrammatical:


#21

Kapal itu dimuatkan bahan-bahan bangunan (0! 0 0 0)

#boat that DI-load-kan material-REDUP build-AN
#The boat was loaded into the  boat


#Sentence (21) is ungrammatical with suffix -kan. However,
#it is a well-formed sentence if suffix -i is used. See example (17).



#More examples of applicative -i sentences with their -kan counterparts.


#22

#Base word:

lampir

#enclose
#to enclose, to attach


#23

Saya melampiri e-mail saya dengan foto anak-anak saya

#1SG Men-enclose-i e-mail 1SG with photograph child-REDUP 1SG
#I enclosed with my e-mail my children's photographs


#Direct object becomes subject of the passive verb dilampiri.


#24

E-mail saya dilampiri foto anak-anak saya

#e-mail 1SG DI-enclose-i photograph child-REDUP 1SG
#my children's photographs are attached to my e-mail


#The meaning changes if the oblique NP object is placed as the subject of 
#the sentence


#25

Foto anak-anak saya dilampiri e-mail saya

#photograph child-REDUP 1SG DI-enclose-i e-mail 1SG 
#My email was attached to my children's photographs


#Suffix -kan:


#26

Saya melampirkan foto anak-anak saya pada e-mail saya

#1SG Men-enclose-kan photograph child-REDUP 1SG in e-mail 1SG   
#I enclosed my children's photographs in my e-mail 


#27

Foto anak-anak saya dilampirkan pada e-mail saya

#photograph child-REDUP 1SG DI-enclose-kan to e-mail 1SG 
#My children's photographs are attached to my e-mail


#The sentence is ungrammatical when the preposition is removed. 
#See sentence (28).

#Ungrammatical:

#28 

Foto anak-anak saya dilampirkan e-mail saya (0! 0 0 0)

#photograph child-REDUP 1SG DI-enclose-kan e-mail 1SG 
#My children's photographs are attached to my e-mail


#29

#Base word:

lekat

#stick
#to stick


#30

Andi melekati gambar yang indah itu dengan lem

#Andi MEN-glue-i picture REL beautiful with glue
#Andi stuck the beautiful picture with glue


#31

Andi melekatkan gambar yang indah itu ke tembok

#Andi MEN-glue-kan picture REL beautiful to wall
#Andi stuck the beautiful picture to the wall


#References:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,1996. 



#Complementiser "bahwa"


#Bahwa corresponds to conjuction 'that' in English. 

#A bahwa clause can occur in a number of positions.

#This document explores different positions a bahwa clause can occur.



#Bahwa modifies a head noun and occurs within a noun phrase.


#1

Cerita bahwa raja Jawa pernah datang ke Maluku tidak benar

#story that king Java ever come to Mollucas NEG true
#The story that the Java king ever came to Mollucas was not true


#2

Pendapat bahwa Partai Demokrat akan menang disampaikan oleh ketuanya

#idea that party Democrat will win DI-say-KAN by chairman-3POSS
#The idea that the Democrat party will win was said by its chairman



#In (3), sentence dia datang 'he/she is coming' is a complement of transitive 
#verb tahu 'know'. This sentence can follow bahwa 'that' as example (4)
#illustrates.


#3

saya tahu dia datang

#I know he/she come.
#I know (that) he/she is coming.


#4

Saya tahu bahwa dia datang.

#I know that he/she come.
#I know that he/she is coming.


#We may negate the verb of the main clause or the verb of the bahwa 
#clause. 


#5

Saya tidak tahu bahwa dia baru mendapatkan seorang anak

#1SG NEG know that 3SG just MEN-have-KAN se-CLASS child
#I did not know that he just had a child


#6

Ia mengatakan bahwa harga barang tidak naik

#3SG say that price goods NEG rise
#He said that the price of goods was not going up




#Bahwa must follow the main verb. It cannot precede the verb.


#ungrammatical:


#7


Saya bahwa tahu dia datang. (0! 0 0 0)

#I that know she come.
#I know that she is coming



#Bahwa usually occurs after certain verbs to report what someone said, felt or
#what happened. The verbs include:

#berpendapat bahwa 'to think that'
#berarti bahwa 'to mean that'
#percaya bahwa 'to believe that'
#tahu bahwa 'to know that'
#berjanji bahwa 'to promise that'
#merasa bahwa 'to feel that'


#Bahwa clause occurs as complement of an intransitive verb. 
#In the following examples intransitive report verbs have 
#bahwa clauses as their complements:


#8

Saya percaya bahwa dia mampu menyelesaikan tugas itu

#1SG believe that 3SG able MEN-finish-KAN task that
#I believe that he is able to finish that task


#9 

Andi lupa bahwa ada pertemuan pagi ini

#Andi forget that be PER-meet-AN morning this
#Andi forgot that there was a meeting this morning

 

#As complements or objects, bahwa can be omitted.


#10

Saya percaya dia mampu menyelesaikan tugas itu

#1SG believe 3SG able MEN-finish-KAN task that
#I believe (that) he is able to finish that task


#11 

Andi lupa ada pertemuan pagi ini

#Andi forget be PER-meet-AN morning this
#Andi forgot (that) there was a meeting this morning



#Bahwa clause can also occur as object of a transitive verb. 
#Example (12) is a direct speech.In (13), bahwa introduces
#indirect speech.


#12

Dia berkata, 'Saya tidak setuju'

#3SG BER-say,'3SG NEG agree'
#He said, 'I do not agree'


#13

Dia berkata bahwa dia tidak setuju

#3SG BER-say that 3SG NEG agree
#He said that he did not agree



#Bahwa clause occurs as predicate of a noun clause. It usually follows
#copula adalah or ialah.


#14

Masalahnya adalah bahwa ia tidak ada kesempatan untuk bekerja
 
#problem-3POSS COP that 3SG NEG be KE-chance-AN for BE-work
#His problem is that he does not have an opportunity to work


#Ungrammatical:


#15

Masalahnya bahwa ia tidak ada kesempatan untuk bekerja (0! 0 0 0)
 
#problem-3POSS that 3SG NEG be KE-chance-AN for BE-work
#His problem (is) that he does not have an opportunity to work


#Sentence (15) is ungrammatical because the copula is deleted.
#However, bahwa can be deleted from sentence  (14).


#16

Masalahnya adalah ia tidak ada kesempatan untuk bekerja
 
#problem-3POSS COP 3SG NEG be KE-chance-AN for BE-work
#His problem is (that) he does not have an opportunity to work



#Bahwa clause can occur in subject position. 


#17

Bahwa penyakit itu membunuh ratusan orang di Nabire memang benar

#that disease that MEN-kill hundred-AN people in Nabire indeed true
#that the disease killed hundreds if people in Nabire was certainly true


#18

bahwa pemerintah tidak akan menurunkan pajak cukup jelas

#that government NEG will MEN-decrease tax enough clear
#that the government will not decrease the tax is clear enough



#Bahwa cannot be deleted when it is in the subject position.


#Ungrammatical:


#19


Penyakit itu membunuh ratusan orang di Nabire memang benar (0! 0 0 0)

#disease that MEN-kill hundreds-AN people in Nabire indeed true
#the disease killed hundreds of people in Nabire was certainly true



#Ungrammatical:


#20

pemerintah tidak akan menurunkan pajak cukup jelas (0! 0 0 0)

#that government NEG will MEN-decrease tax enough clear
#that the government will not decrease the tax is clear enough



#Bahwa can be deleted when it follows predicates in subject position.


#21


Jelas bahwa mereka ingin mendapatkan penghasilan besar

#clear that 3PL want MEN-have-KAN PEN-result-AN big
#It is clear that they want a big income



#22

Jelas mereka ingin mendapatkan penghasilan besar

#clear 3PL want MEN-have-KAN PEN-result-AN big
#It is clear (that) they want a big income



#If the subject of bahwa clause is the same as the subject of the 
#main clause, then both the subject and bahwa can be omitted. 


#23

Dia berjanji bahwa dia tidak akan datang.

#He ber-promise that he NEG will come.
#He promised that he would not come.


#24

Dia berjanji tidak akan datang

#He ber-promise NEG will come.
#He promised not to come.


#It is possible to delete the subject and retain bahwa as example
#(25) illustrates.


#25

Dia berjanji bahwa tidak akan datang

#He ber-promise that NEG will come.
#He promised not to come.




#References: 


#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp.576).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp.291-294) 



#Complementiser "untuk"


#Untuk 'for, (in order) to' is always followed immediately by a verb or negative
#marker tidak 'not' plus a verb.

#1

#Main clause:
#Hannah memutuskan
#Hannah MEN-decide-kan
#Hannah decided

#Sentence to be made untuk clause:
#Hannah tidak menolong saya
#Hannah NEG MEN-help 1SG
#Hannah did not help me


#Untuk clause:

Hannah memutuskan untuk tidak menolong saya.

#Hannah MEN-decide-kan for NEG MEN-help 1SG
#Hannah decided not to help me


#2

#Main clause:
#Mereka bersedia
#3PL BER-prepare
#They prepared

#Sentence to be made untuk clause:
#Mereka mencarikan dia pekerjaan
#3PL MEN-find 3SG PE-work-AN
#They found him a job


#Untuk clause:

Mereka bersedia untuk mencarikan dia pekerjaan

#3PL BER-prepare for MEN-find 3SG PE-work-AN
#They are prepared to find him a job

#In examples (1) and (2) Hannah and mereka '3PL' are the subject of the main
#clause and the complement clause and therefore they are ellipted from
#the complement untuk clause.
#The sentence will be ungrammatical if the subject of the untuk clause is retained.


#3

#Ungrammatical:

Hannah memutuskan untuk Hannah tidak menolong saya (0! 0 0 0)

#Hannah MEN-decide-kan for Hannah NEG MEN-help 1SG
#Hannah decided not to help me


#4 

#Ungrammatical:

Hannah memutuskan untuk dia tidak menolong saya (0! 0 0 0)

#Hannah MEN-decide-kan for 3SG NEG MEN-help 1SG
#Hannah decided not to help me


#See also examples (39) and (40).


#Untuk clauses can occur as subject, predicate and complement.


#Predicate:

#As a predicate an untuk clause is usually preceded by a copula.


#5

Maksudnya adalah untuk memberikan pendidikan rohani

#intent-3POSS COP for MEN-give-kan  PEN-educate-an spirit
#His purpose was to give a spiritual education


#Subject:

#As a subjet an untuk clause usually follows the predicate.


#6

Untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan di kota ini tidak sulit 

#for MEN-get-kan PE-work-AN in town this NEG difficult
#To get a job in this town is not difficult


#7

Untuk membeli tiket perlu paspor

#for MEN-buy ticket need passport
#To buy a ticket needs a passport


#8

sukar sekali bagi saya untuk melupakan peristiwa itu

#difficult very for me for ME-forget-kan incident that
#It is very difficult for me to forget that incident


#9

Mudah bagi Mike Tyson untuk mengalahkan lawannya

#easy for Mike Tyson for MEN-defeat-kan opponent-3POSS
#It is easy for Mike Tyson to defeat his opponent


#10

Untuk menyelesaikan proyek itu bukan pekerjaan mudah. 

#for MEN-finish-kan project that NEG PE-work-AN easy
#To complete the project is not an easy job


#The English translation of sentences (8) and (9) has what Sneddon 
#called 'anticipatory 'it' subject' (See Sneddon 1996:294). 
#In this construction an untuk clause usually follows the predicate.


#Untuk can be omitted when untuk clause occurs as subject.


#11

Untuk membangun gedung itu memerlukan biaya yang sangat besar

#for MEN-build buiding that MEN-need-kan fund REL very big
#To construct that building needed a very big amount of funding


#12

Membangun gedung itu memerlukan biaya yang sangat besar

#MEN-build buiding that MEN-need-kan fund REL very big
#Constructing that building needed a very big amount of funding


#13

Untuk mencari pekerjaan di kampung ini tidak sulit

#for MEN-find PE-work-AN in village this NEG difficult
#To find a job in this village is not difficult


#14

Mencari pekerjaan di kampung ini tidak sulit

#MEN-find PE-work-AN in village this NEG difficult
#Finding a job in this village is not difficult


#15

Untuk mengarang membutuhkan kreatifitas tinggi

#for MEN-compose.a.paper MEN-need-kan creativity high
#To write a paper needs a high creativity


#16

Mengarang membutuhkan kreatifitas tinggi

#MEN-compose.a.paper MEN-need-kan creativity high
#Writing a paper needs a high creativity


#The deletion of untuk in untuk clause alters the sentence into a simple
#nominal clause (see examples (14) and (16). In examples (14) and (16)
#the verbs membangun 'build' and mencari 'find' are used as nouns. This 
#is similar to English gerunds. See file 17.

#Not all simple nominal clauses can become untuk clauses.


#Simple nominal clauses:

#17

Mengumpulkan buku-buku bekas kesukaanya

#MEN-collect book-REDUP used KE-like-3POSS
#Collecting used books is his hobby


#18

#Ungrammatical:

Untuk mengumpulkan buku-buku bekas kesukaanya (0! 0 0 0)

#for MEN-collect book-REDUP used KE-like-3POSS
#To collect used books is his hobby



#19

Menggambar adalah seni

#MEN-picture COP art
#Drawing a picture is an art


#20

#Ungrammatical:

Untuk menggambar adalah seni (0! 0 0 0)

#for MEN-picture COP art
#To draw a picture is an art


#Complement:

#Untuk clause occurs as complement of transitive and intransitive verbs.


#21

Dia bersedia untuk diangkat sebagai kepala desa

#3SG BER-available for DI-raise as head village
#He is prepared to be elected as the head of the village


#22

Teman-teman saya berencana untuk berlibur di sini

#friend-REDUP 1SG BER-plan for BER-vacation in here
#My friends planned to have a vacation here


#23

Kepala sekolah mengizinkan saya untuk tidak masuk hari ini

#head school MEN-permit-kan 1SG for NEG enter day this
#The headmaster permitted me not to come (to school) today


#24

Dia memanggil saya untuk datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-call 1SG for come afternoon this
#He called me to come this afternoon


#As complement of transitive and intransitive clause untuk clause indicates 
#an action which occurs after the action of the main verb.

#Sneddon notes that untuk can always be omitted in which case the complement
#functions as a verbal complement. Sentences (21) to (23) are presented below
#with the omision of untuk.


#25

Dia bersedia diangkat sebagai kepala desa

#3SG BER-available DI-raise as head village
#He is prepared to be elected as the head of the village


#26

Teman-teman saya berencana berlibur disini

#friend-REDUP 1SG BER-plan BER-vacation in here
#My friends planned to have a vacation here


#27

Kepala sekolah mengizinkan saya tidak masuk hari ini

#head school MEN-permit-kan 1SG for NEG enter day this
#The headmaster permitted me not to come (to school) today


#However, untuk in sentence (24) cannot be omitted.


#28

#Ungrammatical:

Dia memanggil saya datang sore ini (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG MEN-call 1SG come afternoon this
#He called me to come this afternoon



#29

Dia meminta saya untuk datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-request 1SG for come afternoon this
#He requested me to come this afternoon


#30

Dia meminta saya datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-request 1SG come afternoon this
#He requested me to come this afternoon


#31

Dia menelpon saya untuk datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-phone 1SG for come afternoon this
#He telephoned me to come this afternoon




#32

#Ungrammatical:

Dia menelpon saya datang sore ini (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG MEN-phone 1SG come afternoon this
#He telephoned me to come this afternoon



#Untuk rarely occurs when the clause is a complement.


#33

Andi mencoba berdiri

#Andi MEN-try stand.up
#Andi tried to stand up


#34

Mereka memutuskan untuk berangkat

#3PL MEN-decide for leave
#They decided to leave


#Certain verbs such as mengelak 'avoid', memutuskan 'decide', and menolak 'refuse'
#have no objects but are immediately followed by an untuk complement.


#35

Presiden menolak untuk menjawab pertanyaan anggota DPR

#president MEN-refuse for MEN-answer PER-quest-AN member parliament
#President refused to answer the question of the member of parliament

#DPR is an Indonesian acronym for Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat
#'People's representative council'.
 


#36

Saya memutuskan untuk tidak menghadiri rapat itu

#1SG MEN-decide for NEG MEN-attend meeting that
#I decided not to attend the meeting


#37

Dia mengelak untuk bertemu langsung dengan lawan politiknya

#3SG MEN-avoid for BER-meet directly with opponent politic-3POSS
#He avoided to meet his political oppoonent directly



#According to Sneddon, there are a number of factors that determine the occurrence
#of untuk.

#First, untuk only occurs when the clause is a complement following the main 
#verb (example 33). However, it occurs only on certain verbs and cannot be
#deleted. Sentence (34) for instance cannot be without untuk.


#38

#Ungrammatical:

Mereka memutuskan berangkat (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL MEN-decide leave
#They decided to leave


#Second, some transitive verbs have no objects but are immediately followed by
#an untuk complement. In this construction the subject of the main clause
#is identical with the subject of the main verb. Any effort to insert an object
#to sentences (35) to (37), for instance, will cause the sentences to be ungrammatical.


#39

#Ungrammatical:

Saya memutuskan dia untuk tidak menghadiri rapat itu (0!0 0 0 0)

#1SG MEN-decide 3SG for NEG MEN-attend meeting that
#I decided him not to attend the meeting


#40

#Ungrammatical:

Dia mengelak saya untuk bertemu langsung dengan lawan politiknya (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG MEN-avoid 1SG for BER-meet directly with opponent political-3POSS
#He avoided me to meet his political opponent directly


#This is different from certain verbs such as meminta 'request':

#41

Dia meminta untuk datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-request for come afternoon this
#He requested to come this afternoon

#The subject of the main clause is also the subject of the complement clause.


#However, in sentence (42) below the subject of the main clause is not the
#the subject of the complement clause. It is the object of the main clause
#which is the subject of the complement clause.

#42

Dia meminta Andi untuk datang sore ini

#3SG MEN-request Andi for come afternoon this
#He requested Andi to come this afternoon


#Third, untuk is optional in (35) to (37). We can have the following
#sentences without untuk. Observe (43) to (45):



#43

Presiden menolak menjawab pertanyaan anggota DPR

#president MEN-refuse MEN-answer PER-quest-AN member parliament
#President refused to answer the question of the member of parliament


#44

Saya memutuskan tidak menghadiri rapat itu

#1SG MEN-decide NEG MEN-attend meeting that
#I decided not to attend the meeting


#45

Dia mengelak bertemu langsung dengan lawan politiknya

#3SG MEN-avoid BER-meet directly with opponent politic-3POSS
#He avoided to meet his political opponent directly



#In this construction untuk clause must be regarded as a complement and not
#an object because the main verb cannot be changed into passive.


#46

#Ungrammatical:

Untuk menjawab Pertanyaan anggota DPR ditolak presiden (0! 0 0 0)

#for MEN-answer PER-quest-AN member parliament DI-refuse president 
#To answer the question of the member of parliament was refused by the president



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 294-296).          




#Complementiser "agar/supaya"


#Conjunction supaya 'in order that, so that' is used to introduce
#a subordinate clause. It implies an intention, expectation or hope
#that a certain end will be reached (Quinn, 2004:1096-7).

#Transitive and intransitive verbs of intent can have complementiser
#supaya/agar clause. (Below is the list of verbs that can take
#supaya/agar clauses based on Sneddon). The verbs include:

#ingin 'want, desire'
#berharap 'hope'
#hendak 'want'
#mau 'want'
#berkeinginan 'desire'
#berpesan 'instruct'
#berusaha 'endeavour'
#bercita-cita'desire'
#mendesak 'urge'
#mengajak 'invite, urge'
#menuntut 'demand'
#menginginkan 'want, desire'
#mengharapkan 'hope, expect'
#menginstruksikan 'instruct'
#menghendaki 'want'
#menyuruh 'order'
#mempersilakan 'invite'
#memerintahkan 'instruct'
#menghimbau 'appeal'
#menasihati ' advise'
#memohon 'request'
#mengusulkan 'suggest'



#Intransitive verb of intent.

#EXAMPLES:

#1
 
Saya mau supaya kamu datang besok

#1SG want so.that 2SG come tomorrow
#I want you to come tomorrow


#2

Ayah ingin supaya kami hidup baik-baik

#Father want so.that 1PL.EXCL life good-REDUP
#Father wanted us to live well


#3

Ibu berpesan agar kami berhati-hati di jalan

#mother BER-instruct so.that 1PL.EXCL BER-careful-REDUP in road
#Mother gave instructions that we be careful on the road
 

#The subjects of supaya/agar clauses in (1) to (3) are different from
#the subjects of the main clauses.

#The order of the sentences in (1) to (3) cannot be reversed.


#4

#Ungrammatical:
 
Supaya kamu datang besok saya mau (0! 0 0 0) 

#so.that 2SG come tomorrow 1SG want
#I want you to come tomorrow



#5

#Ungrammatical:

Supaya kami hidup baik-baik ayah ingin (0! 0 0 0)

#so.that 1PL.EXCL life good-REDUP father want
#Father wanted us to live well


#6

#Ungrammatical:

Agar kami berhati-hati di jalan ibu berpesan (0! 0 0 0)

#so.that 1PL.EXCL BER-careful-REDUP in road mother BER-instruct
#Mother gave instructions that we be careful on the road


#Transitive verbs of intent

#The subject of a transitive verb of intent requires the object to do
#an action which is conveyed by the supaya/agar clause.

#EXAMPLES:


#7

Saya menyuruh Budi agar dia segera datang ke kantor

#1SG MEN-order Budi so.that 3SG immediately come to office
#I ordered Budi that he came to the office immediately


#8

Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan stafnya agar mereka menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN staff-3POSS so.that 3PL MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager instructed his staff that they prepared the documents 


#The subject of a supaya/agar clauses is different from the subject of
#the main clause but it is identical with the object of the main clause
#and therefore it may be ellipted.


#9

Saya menyuruh Budi agar segera datang ke kantor

#1SG MEN-order Budi so.that immediately come to office
#I ordered Budi to come to the office immediately


#10

Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan stafnya agar menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN staf-3POSS so.that MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager instructed his staff to prepare the documents 



#11

Kepala kantor mengajak saya supaya ikut dalam kelompoknya

#head office MEN-invite 1SG so.that take.part in group-3POSS
#The office head invited me to take part in his group


#12

Gubernur DKI Jakarta meminta rakyat agar menghemat pemakaian listrik

#governor DKI Jakarta ME-request people so.that MEN-save PEN-use electricity
#The governor of DKI Jakarta requested the people to reduce the use of eletricity


#13

Aktivis HAM mendesak pemerintah supaya membuka akses bagi jurnalis   

#activist human.rights MEN-urge government so.that MEN-open access for journalist
#Human rights activists urged the government to open access for journalists


#Alternatively, the object of the main clause can be ellipted and in this case
#the subject of the supaya/agar clause is retained. Observe (14) to (18).


#14

Saya menyuruh  agar Budi segera datang ke Kantor

#1SG MEN-order so.that Budi immediately come to office
#I ordered that Budi come to the office immediately


#15

Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan agar stafnya menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN  so.that staff-3POSS MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager gave instructions that his staff prepare the documents 


#16

Kepala kantor mengajak supaya saya ikut dalam kelompoknya

#head office MEN-invite so.that 1SG take.part in group-3POSS
#The office head invited me to take part in his group


#17

Gubernur DKI Jakarta meminta agar rakyat menghemat pemakaian listrik

#governor DKI Jakarta ME-request so.that people MEN-save PEN-use electricity
#The governor of DKI Jakarta requested that the people reduced the use of eletricity


#18

Aktivis HAM mendesak supaya pemerintah membuka akses bagi jurnalis   

#activist human.rights MEN-urge so.that government MEN-open access for journalist
#Human rights activists urged that the government opened access for journalists



#In (14) to (18) the supaya/agar clause occurs as complement of the transitive verb.
#Thus, the main verb is immediately followed by the supaya agar/clause. In this
#type of construction the supaya/agar clause  becomes the object of the main verb.

#Sneddon notes that when the subject of the supaya/agar clause is ellipted
#the clause has no subject and hence supaya and agar can be replaced by 
#untuk 'for' (Sneddon, 1996:299). Observe sentences (19) to (23) below: 



#19

Saya menyuruh Budi untuk segera datang ke Kantor

#1SG MEN-order Budi for immediately come to office
#I ordered Budi to come to the office immediately



#20

Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan stafnya untuk menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN staff-3POSS for MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager instructed his staff to prepare the documents 


#21

Kepala kantor mengajak saya untuk ikut dalam kelompoknya

#head office MEN-invite 1SG for take.part in group-3POSS
#The office head invited me to take part in his group



#22

Gubernur DKI Jakarta meminta rakyat untuk menghemat pemakaian listrik

#governor DKI Jakarta ME-request people for MEN-save PEN-use electricity
#The governor of DKI Jakarta requested the people to reduce the use of eletricity


#23

Aktivis HAM menghimbau pemerintah untuk membuka akses bagi jurnalis   

#activist human.rights MEN-urge government for MEN-open access for journalist
#Human rights activists urged the government to open access for journalists


#The construction of sentences (19) to (23) is the same as (9) to (13).
#However, untuk cannot replace supaya/agar when subject occurs in the supaya/agar
#clause. Observe (24) to (27).


#24

Saya menyuruh Andi agar dia segera datang ke Kantor

#1SG MEN-order Andi so.that 3SG immediately come to office
#I ordered Andi that he came to the office immediately


#25

#Ungrammatical:


Saya menyuruh Andi untuk dia segera datang ke Kantor (0! 0 0 0)

#1SG MEN-order Andi for 3SG immediately come to office
#I ordered Andi that he came to the office immediately



#26

Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan stafnya agar mereka menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN staff-3POSS so.that 3PL MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager instructed his staff that they prepared the documents 


#27

#Ungrammatical:


Manajer perusahaan itu memerintahkan stafnya untuk mereka menyiapkan dokumen-dokumen itu (0! 0 0 0)

#Manager PER-business-AN that MEN-instruct-KAN staf-3POSS for 3PL MEN-ready-KAN document-REDUP that
#The company manager instructed his staff that they prepared the documents 



#The transitive verbs of intent in (9) to (13) can made passive. The position
#of the supaya/agar clause remains after the main verb.


#Passive voice:


#28

Pemerintah didesak aktivis HAM supaya membuka akses bagi jurnalis   

#government  DI-urge activist human.rights so.that MEN-open access for journalist
#The Government was urged by human rights activists to open access for journalists


#Sentences (28) shows that subject of the passive clause is patient
#of the main verb and actor of the complement verb.


#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 1096-7).

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 296-300).                   





#Negation


#The purpose of this document is to explore different types of negative words
#in Indonesian. 

#There are four negative words: tidak, bukan, belum and jangan.

#The document is organised into the following sections:

#(i) Tidak
#(ii) Bukan
#(iii) Belum
#(iv) Jangan


#Tidak 'not'


#Tidak negates a verb, an adjective and a preposition.


#1

Dia tidak pergi ke pasar

#3SG NEG go to market
#He did not go to the market


#2 

Tes Matematika tidak sulit

#test mathematic NEG difficult
#The mathematic test is not difficult


#3

Mereka tidak di sini

#3PL NEG in here
#They are not here


#Tidak is not used to negate noun. Bukan is usually used to negate a noun.


#Ungrammatical 

#4

Dia tidak dokter (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG NEG doctor
#He is not a doctor

#Tidak usually occurs before any other member of the predicative structure, 
#including aspect markers.


#5

Mereka tidak harus pergi

#3PL NEG must go
#They do not have to go


#When tidak modifies a specific item in the predicate, it precedes the item.


#6

Mereka harus tidak pergi

#3PL must NEG go
#They must not go

#However, there is an exception with aspect sudah 'already'. 
#Tidak cannot modify sudah.


#Ungrammatical

#7 

Agus tidak sudah bekerja di sini (0! 0 0 0)

#Agus NEG already Ber-work in here
#Agus has not already worked here

#Aspect sudah always precedes tidak and it modifies the predicate which is
#already modified by tidak.


#8 

Agus sudah tidak bekerja di sini

#Agus already NEG Ber-work in here 
#Agus does not work here any more (He is already out of work).



#Bukan 'not'


#Bukan is used to negate nouns and nominal constructions.

#9

Dia bukan menteri agama

#3SG NEG minister religious
#He is not the minister of religious affairs


#10

Kuda ini bukan kuda saya

#horse this Neg horse 1SG
#This horse is not my horse


#Tidak cannot be used to negate nouns.


#Ungrammatical

#11

Kuda ini tidak kuda saya (0! 0 0 0)

#horse this horse 1SG
#This horse is not my horse


#Bukan can be used to negate verbs or adjectives when contradicting 
#previous statement. An actual correction is given beginning with tapi/tetapi 'but' 
#or melainkan 'but rather'. 


#12

Dia bukan malas tetapi lelah saja

#3Sg NEG lazy but tired only
#He is not lazy but only tired


#Bukan is used to form a tag question.


#13

Gadis itu cantik, bukan?

#girl that prety, NEG?
#That girl is pretty, isn't she?


#14

Dia sudah tamat sekolah itu, bukan?

#3SG already graduate school, NEG?
#She has graduated from that school, hasn't she?



#Belum 'not yet'


#Syntactically belum 'not yet' functions in much the same way as tidak. 


#15

Mereka tidak berangkat 

#3PL NEG Ber-leave
#They do not leave


#16

Mereka belum berangkat 

#3PL NEG Ber-leave
#They do not leave yet


#Belum occurs before any other member of the predicative structure, 
#including aspect markers.


#17

Saya belum lapar

#1SG NEG hungry
#I am not hungry yet


#18

Mereka belum boleh masuk ke ruang kelas

#3PL  NEG may enter to room class
#They may not enter the classroom yet


#Ungrammatical

#19

Mereka boleh  belum tinggal di sini (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL  may NEG stay  in here
#They may not stay here yet

#Sentence 19 is ungrammatical because of the position of belum which follows 
#aspect boleh.



#Jangan 'don't'


#Jangan is used in negative imperative constructions. The following sentences
#are negative imperative, that is, asking someone not to do something.


#20

Jangan lupa!
#NEG forget
#Don't forget!


#21

Jangan merokok di kelas!

#NEG smoke in class
#Don't smoke in the classroom!

#In sentences 20 and 21 the subject is absent and jangan occurs before the verb. 


#Jangan can be placed before and after the optional subject  as the following
#sentences illustrate:


#22

Kamu jangan melawan orangtua mu!

#2SG NEG Me-oppose parents 2SG.POSS
#Don't (you) oppose your parents! 


#23

Jangan kamu melawan orangtua mu!

# NEG 2SG Me-oppose parents 2SG.POSS
#Don't (you) oppose your parents! 
 

#Jangan occurs with passive DI-. In this construction jangan means 'must not'. 
#The position of subject can precede or follow the negative jangan and 
#the passive DI-.


#24

Anak itu jangan dipukul

#child that NEG DI-beat
#That child must not be beaten


#25

Jangan dipukul anak itu
#NEG DI-beat child that
#That child must not be beaten
 


#Jangan can be used when suggesting something not to be done. In this case,
#it is different from a direct command.


#26

Dia mengusulkan supaya siswa-siswi itu jangan menggunakan kalkulator

#3SG MeN-recommend-Kan that student-REDUP NEG MeN-use-Kan calculator
#He recommended that the students not use calculator.


#27

Mereka meminta kami jangan datang sebelum bulan Desember

#3PL Me-request 1PL.EXCL NEG come before month December
#They requested that we should not come before December

#Questions with Apa(kah), Siapa(kah) and interrogative suffix -kah


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Apa(kah) 'what'
#Siapa(kah) 'who'
#Suffix -kah

#Apa(kah) 'what'


#Apakah has two uses: as the straightforward interrogative 'what' and as a
#question marker.


#1

Apakah itu?

#what that?
#What is that?



#Apa(kah) is used as a question marker for a yes-no question.
#A declarative sentence can be altered into an interrogative
#sentence by adding the question word apa(kah) before the declarative
#sentence.


#2

Ini rumah Benny

#this house Benny
#This is Benny's house


#3

Apa ini rumah Benny?

#Quest this house Benny?
#Is this Benny's house?


#Suffix -kah can be added optionally to apa.


#The position of apakah 'what' is always at the beginning of a sentence,
#with the word order as in the declarative sentence.



#Ungrammatical:


#4

Ini rumah Benny apakah? (0! 0 0 0)

#this house Benny Quest
#Is this Benny's house



#Siapakah 'who'


#Siapakah has several uses: as interrogative who, whose, what and a relative
#pronoun.


#Interrogative who:

#5

siapakah ini?

#who this?
#who is this?



#6

Siapakah orang itu?

#who person that?
#Who is that person?


#Interrogative whose:


#7

ini rumah siapa?

#this house who?
#Whose house is this?


#8

itu tanah siapa?

#that land who?
#Whose land is that?


#Interrogative what:


#Indonesian uses siapa 'who' to question a person's name and apa 'what'
#to question name of things or animals.


#9

siapa namanya?

#who name-3SG.POSS?
#what is his/her name?


#10

Siapakah nama orang itu?

#who name person that?
#What is that man's name?



#Ungrammatical:


#11

Apakah nama orang itu? (0! 0 0 0)

#what name person that?
#What is that man's name?



#12

apa nama anjing itu?

#what name dog that?
#what is the dog's name?


#Ungrammatical:


#13

siapa nama anjing itu? (0! 0 0 0)

#who name dog that?
#what is the dog's name?



#14

apa nama kampung ini?

#what name village this?
#What is the name of this village?


#15


apa namanya?

#what name-3SG.POSS
#What is its name?


#Relative pronoun:


#16


Saya tahu siapa yang mengambil buku itu

#1SG know who REL MEN-take book that
#I knew who took the book


#17


Kami tidak tahu siapa namanya

#3PL NEG know who name-3SG.POSS
#We don't know what his/her name is



#Suffix -kah

#Suffix -kah can be added optionally to any specific question words 
#such as apa 'what', siapa 'who', bagaimana 'how', mengapa 'why', etc.


#18

apakah anak itu tinggi?

#Quest child that tall?
#Is that child tall?




#One of the ways to change a declarative sentence into an interrogative
#sentence is by adding suffix -kah to the final word of a phrase.


#19

Dia sakit

#3SG sick
#He is sick


#20

Dia sakitkah?

#3SG sick-Quest
#Is he sick?


#21

Sakitkah dia?

#sick-Quest 3SG?
#Is he sick?


#Sentence (20) is an example of a colloquial usage.


#Some grammars have suggested that after adding  the suffix -kah 
#to the word or phrase to which the question applies,
#the word-order is then inverted to bring this part of the sentence
#forward to the beginning.


#22

Ini buku saya

#this book 1SG
#This is my book


#23

Buku sayakah ini?

#book 1SG-Quest this?
#Is this my book?

#Example (22) and (23) and their meanings are taken from Sarumpaet, J.P. 
#and J.A.C. Mackie (1966:16).


#I suggest that the suffix -kah can be added to the word or phrase to which 
#the question applies without inverting the word-order. My translation of
#sentence 21 is different from Sarumpaet and J.A.C. Mackie as example (27)
#illustrates.


#There are two possible questions formed by suffix -kah for sentence (22):


#24

inikah buku saya?

#this-Quest book 1SG?
#Is this my book? 


#25

Ini buku sayakah?

#this book 1SG-Quest
#Is my book this one?


#Sentence (23) is a colloquial form and is used mostly in eastern Indonesia
#especially in Mollucas and Papua.


#Observe the following sentences in their reverse order. I provide a declarative 
#sentence in example 26 to show how it differs from example (23).


#26

Buku saya ini

#book 1SG this
#My book is this


#27

Buku sayakah ini?

#book 1SG-Quest this?
#Is my book this one?


#28

Buku saya inikah?

#book 1SG-Quest this?
#Is this my book?

#Note that although the word-order is reversed, sentence (24) and
#(28) have the same meaning. 


#Using the question word apakah 'what', we can find similarities in 
#the meaning of sentences when the word-order is reversed.


#29

Ini buku saya

#this book 1SG
#This is my book


#30

Apakah ini buku saya?

#what this book 1SG
#Is this my book



#31

Buku saya ini

#book 1SG this
#My book is this


#32

Apakah buku saya ini?

#what book 1SG this?
#Is my book this one?


#Verbal clauses require relative marker yang 'who, that' when 
#suffix -kah is attached to the subject of a sentence.


#33

Dia pergi ke pasar

#3SG go to market
#He went to the market


#34

Diakah yang pergi ke pasar?

#3SG REL go to market?
#Was he the one that went to the market?


#Relative marker yang 'who, that' is inserted to the clause
#when suffix -kah is attached to subject NP.



#Ungrammatical:


#35

Diakah pergi ke pasar? (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG go to market?
#Was he the one that went to the market?



#Suffix -kah is attached to predicate. Here, the word-order of subject and
#predicate must be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:


#36

Dia pergikah ke pasar? (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG go-Quest to market?
#Did he go to the market?



#37

Pergikah dia ke pasar?

#go-Quest 3SG to market?
#Did he go to the market?


#38

Pergi ke pasarkah dia?

#3SG go to market?
#Did he go to the market?


#Ungrammatical:

#39

pergikah ke pasar dia? (0! 0 0 0)

#go-Quest to market 3SG?
#Did he go to the market?



#Suffix -kah is attached to adjunct PP:

#40

Ke pasarkah dia pergi?

#to market-Quest 3SG go?
#Did he go to the market?


#Colloquial:


#41

Dia pergi ke pasarkah?

#3SG go to market?
#Did he go to the market?



#42

Apakah dia pergi ke pasar

#Quest 3SG go to market
#Did he go to the market


#Below are some more examples of suffix -kah and question marker 
#apakah with relativizer yang 'who, that'


#44

Diakah yang pergi ke pasar?

#3SG REL go to market?
#Was he the one that went to the market?


#45

Apakah dia yang pergi ke pasar?

#Quest 3SG REL go to market?
#Was he the one that went to the market?


#46

Dia yang pergi ke pasarkah?

#3SG REL go to market-Quest?
#Was the one that went to the market him?


#47

Apakah yang pergi ke pasar dia?

#Quest REL go to market 3SG?
#Was the one that went to the market him?




#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 1086).

#Sarumpaet, J.P. and J.A.C. Mackie. Introduction to Bahasa Indonesia,
#Melbourne University Press, 1966 (pp.15-16).

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 310-314) 


#Yes-no questions, Tag questions, short answers


#This document is organised into two sections:

#Yes-no questions
#Tag questions



#Yes-No Questions

#There several ways to change a declarative sentence into a yes-no 
#question.

#First, a declarative sentence can be altered into a yes-no question
#by marking the end of the declarative sentence with a question mark.


#1

Mereka mahasiswa

#3PL student
#They are student


#2

Mereka mahasiswa?

#3PL student?
#Are they student?


#Second, a declarative sentence can be altered into a yes-no question
#by adding the question marker apakah before the declarative sentence.


#3

Kamu haus

#2SG thirsty
#You are thirsty


#4

Apakah kamu haus?

#Quest 2SG thirsty?
#Are you thirsty?


#Question marker apa can be distinguished from question word apa. 
#Observe the following examples:


#Question marker:


#5

Mereka sudah makan 

#3PL already eat 
#They have eaten 


#6

Apa mereka sudah makan? 

#Quest 3PL already eat 
#Have they eaten?


#Question mark apa cannot be placed at the end of the sentence.


#Ungrammatical:


#7

Mereka sudah makan apa? (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL already eat Quest?
#Have they eaten?


#Apa can be omitted.


#8

Mereka sudah makan? 

#3PL already eat 
#Have they eaten?


#Question word:

#Question word apa must be placed at the end of the sentence.


#9

Mereka sudah makan apa?  

#3PL already eat what?
#What have they eaten?


#Ungrammatical:


#10

Apa mereka sudah makan? (0! 0 0 0)

#What 3PL already eat Quest?
#What have they eaten?


#Apa cannot be omitted.


#Ungrammatical:


#11

Mereka sudah makan? (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL already eat?
#What have they eaten?


#Apa can be placed at the beginning of the sentence with the addition
#of relative marker yang 'who, that'.  


#12

#Colloquial:

Apa yang mereka sudah makan? 

#What REL 3PL already eat?
#What have they eaten?


#In standard writing the word-order is usually reversed.


#13

Apa yang sudah mereka makan? 

#What REL already 3PL eat?
#What have they eaten?



#Third, a declarative sentence can be changed into a yes-no question
#by adding suffix -kah to the final word of a phrase.

#The following sentences show that suffix -kah can attach to subject 
#kamu '2SG'or to predicate haus 'be thirsty'.


#14

Colloquial:

Kamu hauskah?

#2SG thirsty-Quest?
#Are you thirsty?


#15

Hauskah kamu?

#thirsty-Quest 2SG?
#Are you thirsty?


#Example 14 shows that suffix -kah is attached to the predicate haus 
#'be thirsty'. The position of the word-order is not reversed.

#Example 15 shows that suffix -kah is attached to the predicate haus
#'be thirsty' but the word-order is reversed.

#A relative marker yang 'who, that' is required when suffix -kah is
#attached to the subject kamu '2SG'.


#16

Kamukah yang haus?

#2SG-Quest REL thirsty?
#Are you the one who is thirsty?


#Ungrammatical:

#17

Kamukah haus? (0! 0 0 0)

#2SG-Quest thirsty?
#Are you the one who is thirsty?



#The answer to yes-no question is ya 'yes' or tidak 'no'.


#18

Kamu lapar?

#2SG hungry?
#Are you hungry?


#19

Apakah kamu lapar?

#Quest 2SG hungry?
#Are you hungry?


#20

Laparkah kamu?

#hungry-Quest 2SG?
#Are you hungry?


#Responses to questions (18) to (20):


#Positive:


#21

Ya!

#Yes!
#Yes!


#22

Ya, saya lapar

#yes, 1SG hungry
#Yes, I am hungry


#Negative:


#23

Tidak!

#NEG!
#No!


#24

Tidak, saya tidak lapar

#NEG, 1SG NEG hungry
#No, I am not hungry


#If a yes-no question has an aspect or a modal
#a positive response is with the aspect or the modal which 
#occured in the question.

#Aspect - sudah

#25

Ibu Mofu sudah pergi ke pasar?

#mother Mofu PERF go to market?
#Has Madame Mofu gone to the market?


#Responses:


#Positive:

#26

Sudah! 

#already
#Yes 


#Negative:

#27

Belum!

#not.yet!
#No!


#Ungrammatical:


#28

Tidak sudah! (0! 0 0 0)

#NEG already!
#NO!



#Aspect - masih


#29

Apakah mereka masih kuliah?

#Quest 3PL still study?
#Are they still studying?


#Responses:

#Positive:

#30

Masih! 

#still!
#Yes! 


#Negative:

#31

Tidak!

#NEG!
#No!


#Ungrammatical:

#32

Tidak masih! (0! 0 0 0)

#NEG still!
#NO!


#Aspect - pernah


#33

Pernahkah dia tinggal di Jayapura?

#ever-Quest 3SG live in Jayapura?
#Has he ever lived in Jayapura


#Responses:

#Positive:


#34

Pernah! 

#ever!
#Yes! 


#Negative:


#35

Tidak pernah!

#NEG ever!
#No!



#Modals:


#Boleh 'may'

#36

Bolehkah saya masuk?

#may-Quest 1SG enter?
#May I come in?


#Responses:

#Positive:

#37

Boleh! 

#May!
#Yes! 


#Negative:

#38

Tidak boleh!

#NEG may!
#No!


#Bisa 'can'


#39

Apakah dia bisa datang?

#Quest 3SG  can come?
#Can he come?


#Responses:

#Positive:

#40

Bisa! 

#Can!
#Yes! 


#Negative:

#41

Tidak bisa!

#NEG can!
#No!


#Harus 'must'

#42

Haruskah kamu pergi ke sekolah?

#must-Quest 2SG go  to school
#Must you go to school?


#Responses:

#Positive:

#43

Harus! 

#Must!
#Yes! 

#Negative:

#44

Tidak harus!

#NEG must!
#No!



#A yes-no question that has a negative stament is usually responded
#with a positive response such as ya 'yes' or betul 'right,correct'.
#English will respond with no.


#45


Kamu tidak terlambat ke sekolah pagi ini?


#2SG NEG late to School morning this?
#Are you not late to school this morning?


#Responses:


#46

Ya!

#Yes!
#No!


#47


Ya, saya tidak terlambat.

#Yes, 1SG NEG late.
#No, I am not late.



#48

Mereka belum terlambat, bukan?

#3PL NEG late, NEG?
#They are not late, are they?



#Responses:  


#49

Ya!

#Yes!
#No!


#50


Ya, mereka belum terlambat.

#Yes, 3PL NEG late.
#No, They are not late.





#Tag questions:


#Bukan 'not'

#Bukan can form a tag question  when it is attached to a statement.
#It usually appears after a statement and turn the statement into a question.


#51

Anda guru bahasa Inggris, bukan?

#2SG teacher English, NEG?
#You are an English teacher, aren't you?


#Response: ya 'yes' or bukan 'not'.


#52

Dia baru kembali dari Jayapura, bukan?

#3SG just return from Jayapura, NEG?
#He has just returned from Jayapura, hasn't he?


#Response: ya 'yes' or tidak 'not'.


#Sentence (51) and (52) are affirmative sentences. However, bukan also
#occurs with negative sentences:


#53

Mereka belum terlambat, bukan?

#3PL NEG late, NEG?
#They are not late, are they?


#Response: ya 'yes' or belum 'not'.


#54

Kamu tidak punya ijazah universitas, bukan?

#2SG NEG have certificate university, NEG?
#You do not have a university certificate, do you?


#Response: ya 'yes' or tidak 'not'.



#Tag question ya 'yes'

#Ya 'yes' is usually used to answer an interrogative question.
#However, when ya is placed at the end of a statement, it changed 
#the statement into a tag question.


#55

Anak itu pintar sekali, ya?

#child that clever very, yes?
#That child is very clever, isn't he?

#Response: ya 'yes' or tidak 'not'.


Reference:

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 310-314) 

#Specific questions with apa, siapa, berapa, kenapa and mengapa


#Indonesian question words are formed on the basis of two question words: 
#apa 'what' and mana 'where'.

#Below we show the formation of specific question words based on 
#Dardjowidjoyo's proposal(Dardjowijoyo, 1978:86-87) and explore their 
#functions within sentences.


#Apa

#Specific questions which are formed on the basis of the question word
#apa 'what' are berapa 'how many/much', siapa 'who', mengapa 'why', and 
#kenapa 'why.

#Apa --> what
#Ber + apa --> berapa 'how many/much'
#Si + apa ---> siapa 'who'
#MENG-apa ---> mengapa 'why'
#Ken -apa ---> kenapa 'why'


#Mana

#Specific questions which are formed on the basis of the question word
#mana 'where' are di mana 'at where', ke mana 'to where', dari mana 
#'from where', bagaimana 'what...like, how', and  bilamana 'when'.


#Mana 'where'
#di + mana ---> di mana 'at where'
#ke + mana ---> ke mana 'to where'
#dari + mana --> dari mana 'from where'
#bagai + mana ---> bagaimana 'what ... like, how'
#bila + mana ----> bilamana 'when' 

#Kapan --> 'when'

#The question words described above correspond to English 
#'wh-' questions. These questions do not expect  ya 'yes' or
#tidak,bukan, belum 'no' as an answer. They expect more
#specific information.  




#Apa 'what' and siapa 'who' 

#Apa and siapa function as nominals.

#Siapa can replace the subject and the object of a sentence,
#and makes the sentence interrogative. 
#Siapa only replaces human subjects. 

#1

Orang mabuk itu mengancam sopir taksi

#person drunk that MEN-threat driver taxi
#That drunk man threatened the taxi driver


#2


Siapa mengancam sopir taxi?

#Who MEN-threat driver taxi?
#Who threatened the taxi driver?


#Most Indonesians prefer to use the relative marker 
#yang 'who, that'after siapa.


#3


Siapa yang mengancam sopir taxi?

#Who REL MEN-threat driver taxi?
#Who threatened the taxi driver?


#4

Orang mabuk itu mengancam siapa?

#person drunk that MEN-threat who?
#Who did that drunk man threaten?


#In (4) siapa can replace the object of the sentence. 



#Apa replaces non-human subjects. However, apa cannot be 
#placed at the beginning of the sentence.


#5

Dia beli rumah baru

#3SG buy house new
#He bought a new house


#Ungrammatical:

#6

Apa dia beli? (0! 0 0 0)

#what 3SG buy?
#What did he buy?
 

#Apa can only be placed at the beginning of the sentence
#if it is followed by the relative marker yang 'who, that'.
 

#7

Apa yang dia beli?  

#what REL 3SG buy?
#What did he buy?


#Apa can replace the object of a sentence. For this purpose
#apa does not need the relative marker yang 'who, that'.


#8

Dia beli apa?

#3SG buy what?
#What did he buy?


#Apa and siapa can modify a noun. As modifiers apa and siapa
#are placed after the noun and have meanings of 'what (book), 
#whose (father)' respectively. 

 
#9

Mereka membaca buku biology

#3PL MEN-read book biology
#They read biology book


#10

Mereka membaca buku apa?

#3PL MEN-read book what?
#What book did they read?


#11

Pak Rumkorem memperbaiki sepeda bapak

#sir Rumkorem MEM-PER-repair-I bicycle father
#Mr Rumkorem repaired father's bicycle



#12

Pak Rumkorem memperbaiki sepeda siapa?

#sir Rumkorem MEM-PER-repair-I bicycle who?
#Whose bicycle did Mr Rumkorem repair?

 

#Apa and siapa can be preceded by a preposition.


#13

Untuk apa barang-barang ini?

#for what goods-REDUP this?
#What are these goods for?


#14

Dari siapa hadiah ini?

#from who gift this?
#Who is this gift from?



#Berapa  


#Questions with berapa require an answer that has a number in it.
#Berapa means 'how many?', 'how much?', 'what'(When asking about a number/
#quantity).

#The position of berapa within a sentence can be at the 
#beginning or at the end of a sentence.


#15

Berapa harga tiket kereta?

#how.many price ticket train?
#How much is the train ticket?


#16

Harga tiket kereta berapa?

#price ticket train how.many ?
#How much is the train ticket?



#Berapa can be used for counting or measuring people and things.


#17

Berapa banyak uang yang kamu punya?

#how.many many/much money REL 2SG have?
#How much money do you have?


#18

Dia mau beli berapa kilo?

#3SG want buy how.many kilo?
#How many kilos does he want to buy?


#19

Berapa kali?

#how.many time?
#How many times?



#20

Berapa tahun?

#how.many years?
#How many years?


#21

Berapa tahun umur anda?

#how.many year age 2SG?
#How old are you?



#Berapa is often followed by numeral classifier. The most common are
#orang (for counting people), buah (for counting things), and ekor
#(for counting animals)


#22

Berapa orang siswa tidak membayar biaya sekolah?

#How.many  CLASS student NEG MEN-pay fee school?
#How many students did not pay school fees? 


#Berapa  can appear in front of adjectives when we are asking 
#'how much' or 'to what extent'.

#23

Berapa jauh kota Jayapura dari sini?

#how.many far town Jayapura from here?
#How far is Jayapura town from here?

#24

Berapa berat badan anak itu?

#how.many heavy body child that?
#How heavy is the child?

#25

Berapa panjang jembatan ini?

#how.many long bridge this?
#How long is this bridge?


#Berapa also occur after a noun with the meaning equivalent
#to English 'what'. The answer usually requires a numeral. 


#26

Kelas berapa?

#class what?
#What grade? (in school)


#27

Kelas lima

#class five
#Fifth grade

#28

Jam berapa?

#time what?
#What time?

#29

Pukul berapa?

#strike what?
#What time?


#30

Nomor berapa?

#number what?
#What number?


#31

Tahun berapa?

#year what?
#What year?

#32

Tanggal berapa?

#date what?
#What date?


#Berapa can be used as a relative pronoun which means
#'how many, how much'.


#33

Saya lupa berapa yang absen.

#1SG forget how.many REL absent.
#I forgot how many who were absent.



#Kenapa and Mengapa

#Kenapa 'why'  is a very common informal variant of the more
#formal mengapa why? Kenapa and mengapa function as adverb 
#of reason.


#34

Kenapa kamu terlambat?

#why 2SG TER-late?
#Why are you late?


#35

Kenapa dia menangis?

#why 3SG MEN-cry?
#Why is she crying?


#Relative pronoun why.

#36

Saya mengerti kenapa dia kecewa

#1SG MEN-understand  why 3SG upset
#I understand why he is upset


#37

Mengapa kamu menangis?

#Why 2SG cry?
#Why are you crying?


#Interrogative what's wrong. What's the matter.
#When it is said alone.


#38

Mengapa?

#Why?
#Why?


#39

Mengapa, Adik?

#Why, young.brother?
#What's the matter, young brother?


#Relative pronoun

#40

Saya tahu mengapa dia tidak senang

#1SG know why 3SG NEG happy
#I know why he is not happy



References:

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978.   


#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 310-314) 

#Specific questions with mana, di mana, ke mana, dari mana,
#bagaimana, bilamana, kapan and Indirect Questions


#This document is organised into the following sections:

#Mana
#Di mana
#Ke mana
#Dari mana
#Bagaimana
#Bilamana and kapan
#Indirect questions


#Mana

#Mana can be used to ask different kinds of questions.
#It means 'what', 'which', 'where','why' or 'how'
#depending on context and accompanying terms.


#Mana is an informal variant of di mana.


#1

Mana Dodanu?

#Where Dodanu?
#Where is Dodanu?


#2

Mana buku saya?

#where book 1SG?
#Where is my book?


#Relative pronoun which, which one,(an informal variant of yang mana
#'which one')


#3

Kamu boleh pilih mana yang kamu suka

#2SG may choose where REL 2SG like
#You may choose which one you like


#Mana is used as a modifier meaning 'which'
#(when we are asking about a place)


#4

Anakmu tinggal di kota mana?

#child-2SG.POSS live in town where?
#What town does your child live in? 

#5

Toko mana yang menjual peralatan komputer?

#shop where REL MEN-sell PER-tool-AN computer?
#Which shop sells computer equipment?



#Di mana 

#Interrogative where?

#Before the spelling reform in 1972 di mana was written as a
#single word dimana. Many Indonesians, however, still write
#di mana as a single word.
 
#Interrogative where? Di mana is used to ask questions that 
#expect an answer using di (at, in, on).


#6

Di mana kampung Arkuki?

#at where village Arkuki?
#Where is Arkuki village?


#7

Kampung Arkuki di mana?

#Village Arkuki at where?
#Where is Arkuki village?

#Answer:

#8

Di kelurahan Sanggeng

#In sub-district Sanggeng
#In Sanggeng sub-district


#Di mana can occur at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
#Quinn (1994:668) notes that the position of di mana at the beginning of
#the sentence is common in Sumatra, whereas in Java the position of
#di mana at the end of sentence is preferred.


#Relative pronoun where


#9

Kami tidak tahu di mana dia dibunuh

#3PL.EXCL NEG know  at where 3SG DI-kill
#We did not know where he was killed



#Ke mana

#Interrogative where (to)?
#Ke mana is used when we are asking about where someone
#or something is heading.

#10

Ke mana mereka pergi?

#To where 3PL go?
#Where do they go?


#11

Mereka pergi ke mana?

#3PL go to where?
#Where do they go?


#Relative pronoun where (implying movement towards something).

#12

Pak Guru bertanya ke mana anak itu pergi

#Sir teacher BER-ask to where child that go
#The teacher asked where the child went to



Dari mana

#Interrogative where (from).

#13

Mereka dari mana?

#3PL from where?
#Where are they from?



#Bagaimana

#Interrogative what.

#Bagaimana is used to ask what is someone/something like,
#what are the characteristics or features of someone or
#something, and What kind of a state is someone or something in.


#14

Bagaimana cuaca hari ini?

#what weather day this?
#How is the weather today?


#15


Bagaimana kondisi kesehatan Pak Bupati?


#What condition ke-well.being-AN sir regent?
#What is the condition of the regent's health?



#16

Bagaimana sekarang?

#What now?
#What do we do now?


#Bagaimana is also used to ask how is something done,
#how do you go about doing something.

#17

Bagaimana cara kamu membuat kue ini?

#what way 2SG MEN-make cake this?
#How do you make this cake?


#18

Bagaimana dia bisa membuka pintu pesawat itu?

#what 3SG can MEN-open door plane that?
#How could he open that plane door?


#Relative pronoun what, how. It often implies a question
#of some kind.


#19

Siswa-siswi saya tahu bagaimana cara mengerjakan soal-soal matematika

#student-REDUP 1SG know what way MEN-do-KAN question-REDUP mathematics
#My students know how to do mathematic questions.



#Bila mana and kapan 


#Bilamana 'when' and kapan 'when' function as adverb of time.


#20

Bilamana anda akan berangkat?

#when 2SG will leave?
#When will you leave?


#21

Kapan anda akan berangkat?

#when 2SG will leave?
#When will you leave?



#Certain questions such as bilamana or kapan 'when' and mengapa
#or kenapa 'why' are rarely placed at the end of a sentence.



#22

Mengapa dia datang terlambat?

#Why 3SG come TER-late?
#Why did he come late?



#Ungrammatical:

#23

Dia datang terlambat mengapa? (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG come TER-late why?
#Why did he come late?



#Colloquial:

#24

Dia datang terlambat kenapa?

#3SG come TER-late why?
#Why did he come late?


#25

Bilamana anda akan berangkat?

#when 2SG will leave?
#When will you leave?


#Ungrammatical:


#26

Anda akan berangkat bilamana? (0! 0 0 0)

#when 2SG will leave?
#When will you leave?


#With kapan 'when' it is possible to have it at the beginning and at the
#end of the sentence.


#27

Kapan anda akan berangkat?

#when 2SG will leave?
#When will you leave?


#28

Anda akan berangkat kapan?

#2SG will leave when?
#When will you leave?


#Indirect Questions

#A direct question can be altered into an indirect question by placing
#the question as the complement of a interrogative verb. Indirect question 
#can occur as object or complement of a verb. There is no inversion in the
#word-order of direct questions.



#29


Saya tahu siapa yang mengambil buku itu

#1SG know who REL MEN-take book that
#I knew who took the book


#30


Kami tidak tahu siapa namanya

#3PL NEG know who name-3SG.POSS
#We don't know what his/her name is



#31

Kami tidak tahu di mana dia dibunuh

#3PL.EXCL NEG know  at where 3SG DI-kill
#We did not know where he was killed


#32

Kamu boleh pilih mana yang kamu suka

#2SG may choose where REL 2SG like
#You may choose which one you like


#33

Saya tahu mengapa dia tidak senang

#1SG know why 3SG NEG happy
#I know why he is not happy


#34

Pak Guru bertanya ke mana anak itu pergi

#Sir teacher BER-ask to where child that go
#The teacher asked where the child went to


#35

Mereka tidak tahu apa yang mereka lakukan

#3PL NEG know what REL 3PL do
#They did not know what they did

#36

Dia tidak mendengar apa yang orangtuanya katakan

#3SG NEG MEN-listen what REL parents-3SG.POSS say-KAN
#He did not listen to what his parents said


#37

Siswa-siswi saya tahu bagaimana cara mengerjakan soal-soal matematika

#student-REDUP 1SG know what way MEN-do-KAN problem-REDUP mathematics
#My students know how to do mathematic problems.


#38

Saya lupa berapa yang absen.

#1SG forget how.many REL absent.
#I forgot how many who were absent.


#39

Saya mengerti kenapa dia kecewa

#1SG MEN-understand  why 3SG upset
#I understand why he is upset



#Indirect questions can be the subject in a passive clause.


#40

Siapa yang mencuri emas-emas itu akan ditangkap polisi

#who REL MEN-steal gold-REDUP that will DI-catch police
#Who stole those gold will be arrested by the police


#41

Apa yang kamu tulis sangat penting bagi kami

#what REL 2SG write very important for 1PL.EXCL
#What you wrote was very important for us



#Indirect yes-no question can function as object or complement or 
#subject in a passive clause


#42

Saya bertanya apakah mereka mahasiswa

#1SG BER-ask what 3PL student
#I asked whether they were students


#43

Dia ingin tahu apakah ini rumah Benny

#3SG want know Quest this house Benny
#He wanted to know if this is Benny's house


#44

Apakah dia bersalah atau tidak masih belum jelas bagi kami

#Quest 3SG BER-wrong or NEG still NEG clear for us
#Whether he is wrong or not is still not clear to us



#References:

#Dardjowidjojo,Soenjono, Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978.   

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 668).

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 310-314) 

#Imperatives


#Generally imperatives, requests, and invitations are expressed by the
#tone which serves as the exact meaning of an imperative.
#However, there are also indirect ways of expressing  the imperative
#to make it less harsh or blunt.

#This document presents basic form of imperatives and various types of
#imperatives in Indonesian. The document is organised into the following 
#sections:

#Basic form 
#Passive imperative
#Negative imperative
#Imperative markers
#Requests 
 
#Basic form  

#The following examples show intransitive and transitive verbs in
#imperatives.

#Commands in the written form usually end with exclamation marks.

#1

Pergi ke sana!

#go to there!
#Go there!


#2

Pergilah ke sana!

#go-lah to there!
#Go there, please!


#3

Ambil keranjang itu dari Ibu mu!

#take basket that from mother 2SG!
#Take that basket from your mother!


#4

Ambillah keranjang itu dari Ibu mu!

#take-lah basket that from mother 2SG!
#Take that basket from your mother, please!

#Particle -lah in (2) and (4) is used to soften or reduce
#the harshness of the command.


#Negative imperative

#Sentences (1) to (4) are positive imperative. To change them into
#negative imperative the negative marker jangan is used.


#5

Jangan pergi ke sana!

#NEG go to there!
#Don't go there!


#6

Jangan ambil keranjang itu dari ibu mu!

#NEG take basket that from mother 2SG!
#Don't take that basket from your mother!


#To soften the negative imperative particle -lah is attached to the
#negative marker jangan not to the intransitive or transitive verb of
#the sentence.


#7

Janganlah pergi ke sana!

#NEG-lah go to there!
#Don't go there, please!


#8

Janganlah ambil keranjang itu dari ibu mu!

#NEG-lah take basket that from mother 2SG!
#Don't take that basket from your mother, please!


#Ungrammatical:

#9

Jangan pergilah ke sana! (0! 0 0 0)

#NEG go-lah to there!
#Don't go there, please!


#Ungrammatical:

#10

Jangan ambillah keranjang itu dari ibu mu! (0! 0 0 0)

#NEG take-lah basket that from mother 2SG!
#Con't take that basket from your mother, please!


#Sneddon notes that transitive verbs lose prefix MEN- when they refer
#to specific action (see example 3). However, when the verbs refer to
#action in general, prefix MEN- can be used. 

#Examples from Sneddon (1996:325):


#11

Membaca sekarang!

#MEN-read now!
#Read now!  (Now is the time to read!)


#12

Menabung uang untuk hari tuamu!

#MEN-save money for day old-2SG!
#Save money for your old age!


#Passive imperative

#An imperative sentence can be changed into a passive imperative with the
#use of prefix di-.


#Active voice:

#13

Jangan tutup pintu itu!

#NEG close door that!
#Don't close the door!


#Passive voice:

#14

Pintu itu jangan ditutup!

#door that NEG DI-close!
#The door is not to be closed!


#The word order of passive imperative is flexible. However, the verb always
#follows jangan.


#15

Jangan ditutup pintu itu !

#NEG DI-close door that!
#The door is not to be closed!


#Prohibition is expressed with the verb larang 'to prohibit'. It is always
#preceded by prefix di-.


#16

Dilarang masuk!

#DI-prohibit enter!
#No entry!


#17

Dilarang merokok!

#DI-prohibit ME-cigarette
#No smoking!


#Imperative markers


#Certain words are used to express imperatives.
#Most of them are used to make imperatives softer or polite.

#The imperative markers introduce different types of imperatives. 
#Dardjowidjojo mentions three types of imperative introduced by the 
#imperative markers:
#Inclusive imperative with the imperative marker mari;
#Favorative imperative with the imperative marker tolong;
#Tolerative imperative with the imperative marker biar.

#Sneddon adds other imperative markers such as silakan, coba, harap
#and tag ya.

#Except tag ya, all the imperative markers are placed at the beginning
#of the sentence.


#18

Mari kita melihat pertandingan sepak bola di Stadion Sanggeng!

#come 1PL.INCL ME-see PER-compete-AN kick ball in Stadium Sanggeng!
#Let's go to see the footbal match at the Sanggeng stadium!


#19

Tolong simpan buku ini!

#help keep book this!
#Do me a favor, please keep this book!


#20

Biar kami tunggu di sini saja!

#let 1PL.EXCL wait in here just!
#Let us just wait here!


#Mari and biar can be contrasted as the examples from Sneddon (1996:334)
#below illustrates.


#21

Mari kita pergi

#let 1PL.INCL go!
#Let us (you and me) go!


#22

Biar kami pergi!

#let 1PL.EXCL go!
#Allow us (me and someone else) to go!


#23

Coba angkat kaki kirimu!

#try lift leg left-2SG!
#Please lift your left leg!


#All the imperative markers in (18) to (23) can combine with particle
#-lah.


#24

Marilah kita melihat pertandingan sepak bola di Stadion Sanggeng!

#come-lah 1PL.INCL ME-see PER-compete-AN kick ball in Stadium Sanggeng!
#Let's go see the footbal match at the Sanggeng stadium!


#25

Tolonglah simpan buku ini!

#help-lah keep book this!
#Do me a favor, please keep this book!


#26

Biarlah kami pergi!

#let-lah 1PL.EXCL go!
#Allow us (me and someone else) to go!


#27

Cobalah angkat kaki kirimu!

#try-lah lift leg left-2SG!
#Please lift your left leg!


#Harap

#Harap is softer than tolong, coba or silakan.
#Unlike other imperative marker harap cannot combine with particle -lah.


#28

Harap datang ke pertemuan sore ini!

#hope come to PER-meet-AN afternoon this.
#Would you please come to the meeting this afternoon.


#Ungrammatical:

#29

Haraplah telepon saya! (0! 0 0 0)

#hope-lah phone 1SG.
#Please phone me.


#Silakan

#Silakan is commonly used to invite people to do or have something.


#30

Silakan duduk!

#please sit.
#Please sit down.


#31

Silakan masuk!

#please enter.
#Please come in.


#Requests 


#Two requesting verbs are (me)minta and (me)mohon 'to request'.

#32

Minta roti!

#request bread.
#Can I please have some bread.


#33

Minta minum!

#request drink.
#Can I please have a drink. 


#34

Mohon maaf!

#request apology.
#Can you please forgive me.


#35

Mohon bawa kartu mahasiswa!

#request bring card student.
#Please bring your student card.


#Most imperative words only cooccur with negative marker jangan.
#However, minta and mohon can cooccur with negative markers jangan and
#tidak.


#36

Mohon tidak bawa kartu mahasiswa!

#request NEG bring card student.
#Please don't bring your student card.


#37

Mohon jangan merokok dalam gedung!

#request NEG ME-cigarette in building.
#Please don't smoke inside the building.


#Polite requests

#Some words which can be used to form polite requests are
#hendaknya, hendaklah, sudi, and kiranya.
#Hendaknya and hendaklah are very common and are used to suggest
#that an action should be done. Sudi and kiranya are very polite
#requests. They are rarely used in everyday conversation. 
#However, they are commonly used in prayer and formal speech.


#38

Hendaknya pintu-pintu rumah dikunci sebelum berangkat.

#intend-nya door-REDUP house DI-lock before leave.
#Doors of the house must be locked before leaving.


#39

Hendaklah membalas surat ini dengan segera.

#intend-lah MEN-reply letter this immediately.
#Would you please reply to this letter at once.

#Example (39) is taken from Sneddon (1996:332).


#40

Sudi bapak datang ke rumah saya.

#have.the.pleasure.to sir come to house 1SG.
#Would you please come to my house.


#41

Kiranya Tuhan mendengarkan doa kami.

#kindly God MEN-listen-KAN pray 1PL.EXCL.
#I request that (you) God kindly hear our prayer. 


#The combination of sudi and kiranya makes the sentence even 
#more polite.


#42

Sudilah kiranya Tuhan mengampuni kesalahan kami.

#have.the.pleasure.to kindly God MEN-forgive-i KE-wrong-AN 1PL.EXCL
#Would you be so good as to forgive our sin.



#References:

#Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. Sentence patterns of Indonesian,
#University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1978 (pp. 107-108,
#167-170, 187-188, 201-202).

#Sarumpaet, Jan, P. The Structure of Bahasa Indonesia,
#Sahata Pulications, Melbourne, 1977 (pp.144-167).

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 324-334).                   


#Ellipsis


#This document presents ellipsis in Indonesian.

#The document is organised into the following sections:


#Ellipsis of subject
#Ellipsis of words other than the subject.
#Elipsis of possessives 
#Ellipsis in responses
#Multiple ellipsis


#Words, phrases, and whole clauses in Indonesian can be omitted by ellipsis. 
#There is a reasonably good expectation that the hearer can fill them in, or 
#understand what what was intended, from knowledge of the context or the situation
#in which the sentence was used.




#Ellipsis of subject


#1

#Context:
#Ada apa dengan kamu? 
#be what with 2SG? 
#What is the matter with you?

Datang terlambat dan tidak bawa buku pelajaran.

#[2SG] Come TER-late and [2SG] NEG bring book PER-teach-AN.
#(You) came late and (you) did not bring the lesson book. 

#2

#.... mengantuk? 

Mengantuk?

#MeN-sleepy?
#[Are you] sleepy? 
#Are you sleepy?


#3

#'Tidak ........,  ..... cuma lelah sedikit setelah .... bekerja hampir dua jam'.

Tidak, cuma lelah sedikit setelah bekerja hampir dua jam.

#'NEG [1SG NEG MEN-sleepy]'. [1SG] just tired a.little.bit after [1SG] BER-work almost two hours'
#No (I was not sleepy), (I) was just tired after working for almost two hours


#4

#Pak Kalasse sering ke Jakarta, tetapi .... jarang singgah ke Bogor.

Pak Kalasse sering ke Jakarta, tetapi jarang singgah ke Bogor.

#sir Kalasse often to Jakarta, but [3SG] rare stop.for.awhile to Bogor
#Mr Kallase often goes to Jakarta, but (he) rarely drops by in Bogor 


#5

#Context:
#Saya membaca berita yang mengejutkan mengenai 'Pencurian Motor yang dilakukan 
#1SG MEN-read news REL MEN-surprise-KAN MEN-touch-I 'PEN-steal-AN motor REL DI-do-KAN
#I read a shocking news about a stolen motorbike which was stolen

#oleh Caleg untuk DPRD DKI'. 
#by legislative.canddidate for DPRD DKI'.
#by a parliamentary candidate for DPRD DKI. 


#Wah, .... baru jadi caleg sudah nekat curi motor, apalagi ..... sudah jadi wakil rakyat?

Wah, baru jadi caleg sudah nekat curi motor, apalagi sudah jadi wakil rakyat?

# Hmm..[3SG] just only being a candidate already do steal a motorbike, what's more if [3SG] already become representative people?
#(I said to myself) Hmm... (He) is just being a candidate (at this stage) but (he) did steal a bike, what's more if (he) is already elected member of parliament?


#Source: http://kupalima.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/baru-jadi-caleg-sudah-tertangkap-mencuri-motor-apalagi/



#6

#Pak kepala desa tidak bisa hadir karena .... harus menjemput anaknya

Pak kepala desa tidak bisa hadir karena harus menjemput anaknya

#sir head village NEG can attend because [3SG] must MEN-pick.up child.3POSS.
#The head of the village cannot attend (the meeting) because he had to pick up his child.

#Sentence (6) shows that the subject of the subordinate clause is ommitted.
#The subordinate clause can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.


#7

#Karena harus menjemput anaknya Pak kepala desa tidak bisa hadir

karena harus menjemput anaknya Pak kepala desa tidak bisa hadir 

#because [3SG] must MEN-pick.up child.3POSS sir head village NEG can attend
#The head of the village cannot attend (the meeting) because he had to pick up his child.


#The subordinate clause can have the noun 'Pak kepala desa 'the head of the village' as
#the subject. A pronoun can replace the noun in the main clause. Observe sentence (8).


#8

#Karena pak kepala desa harus menjemput anaknya, dia tidak bisa hadir

Karena pak kepala desa harus menjemput anaknya, dia tidak bisa hadir

#because head village must MEN-pick.up child.3POSS, 3SG NEG can attend
#The head of the village cannot attend (the meeting) because he had to pick up his child.


#The main clause cannot be left out without a subject.


#Ungrammatical:

#9

karena pak kepala desa harus menjemputnya anaknya, tidak bisa hadir (0! 0 0 0)

#because head village must MEN-pick.up child.3POSS,  NEG can attend
#The head of the village cannot attend (the meeting) because he had to pick up his child.



#Ellipsis of words other than the subject.


#10

#Saya sudah makan tetapi mereka belum ....

Saya sudah makan tetapi mereka belum

#3SG already eat but 3PL NEG [eat]
#I have eaten but they have not (eaten) yet


#11

#Context:
#Majikannya tidak tahu kemana dia pindah. 
#Majikannya tidak tahu kemana dia pindah. 
#master-3POSS NEG know where 3SG move. 
#His master did not know where he moved. 

#Teman-temannya juga tidak tahu ..........

Teman-temannya juga tidak tahu

#Friend-REDUP-3POSS also NEG know [where 3SG moved]
#His friends also did not know where he moved.

#from Sneddon, p. 366

#12

#Dia lapar tetapi saya tidak ....

Dia lapar tetapi saya tidak

#3SG hungry but 1SG NEG
#He is hungry but I am not hungry


#13

#Question:
#Ada berapa buku dalam kotak itu?
#be how.many book in box that?

#Answer: 
#sepuluh .... 

DP: sepuluh 

#ten [book]
#ten books 



#Elipsis of possessives 


#14

#Dia menggelengkan kepala.... berulang-ulang

Dia menggelengkan kepala berulang-ulang

#3SG MEN-nod head [3POSS/3SG] BER-repeat-REDUP
#He nodded his head repeatedly


#15

#Mereka mencuci tangan ....


Mereka mencuci tangan 

#3PL in.the.process.of MEN-wash hand [3PL]
#They were washing their hands

#Sneddon notes that ellipsis in possessives is common for alienable
#possession like body parts.



#Ellipsis in responses


#16

#Question:
#Apakah kamu lapar?
#Quest 2SG hungry?
#Are you hungry?


#Responses:

#Positive:

#17

Ya

#Yes .....
#Yes .....

#Ya, [saya lapar]
#yes, [1SG hungry]
#Yes, I am hungry


#Negative:


#18

Tidak 

#NEG .....
#No ......

#Tidak, [saya tidak lapar]
#NEG, [1SG NEG hungry]
#No, I am not hungry


#If a yes-no question has an aspect or a modal
#a positive response is with the aspect or the modal which 
#occured in the question.


#Aspect - sudah

#Question: 
#Ibu Mofu sudah pergi ke pasar?
#mother Mofu PERF go to market?
#Has Madame Mofu gone to the market?

#Responses:

#Positive:

#19

Sudah 

#already ....
#Yes ..... 

Sudah, [Ibu Mofu sudah pergi ke pasar]
#already, [mother Mofu PERF go to market]
#Yes, Madame Mofu had gone to the market.


#Negative:

#20

Belum!

#not.yet!
#No!

#Belum, [Ibu Mofu belum pergi ke pasar]
#not.yet, [mother Mofu not.yet go to market]
#No, Madame Mofu had not gone yet to the market.
 


#Aspect - masih


#21

#Question:
#Apakah mereka masih kuliah?
#Quest 3PL still study?
#Are they still studying?


#Responses:

#Positive:

Masih

#still, ...
#Yes, .... 


#Negative:

#22

Tidak

#NEG!
#No!



#Aspect - pernah


#23

#Question:

#Pernahkah dia tinggal di Jayapura?
#ever-Quest 3SG live in Jayapura?
#Has he ever lived in Jayapura


#Responses:

#Positive:

Pernah

#ever, .....
#Yes, ....


#Negative:


#24

Tidak pernah

#NEG ever, ....
#No, .....



#Modals:


#Boleh 'may'

#25

#Question:
#Bolehkah saya masuk?
#may-Quest 1SG enter?
#May I come in?


#Responses:

#Positive:

Boleh 

#May, ....
#Yes, .... 


#Negative:

#26

Tidak boleh

#NEG may, .....
#No!


#Bisa 'can'


#27

#Question:
#Apakah dia bisa datang?
#Quest 3SG  can come?
#Can he come?


#Responses:

#Positive:

Bisa

#Can, ...
#Yes, ... 


#Negative:

#28

Tidak bisa

#NEG can, ...
#No, ....


#Harus 'must'

#29

#Question:
#Haruskah kamu pergi ke sekolah?
#must-Quest 2SG go  to school
#Must you go to school?


#Responses:

#Positive:

Harus

#Must, ...
#Yes, .... 

#Negative:

#30

Tidak harus

#NEG must, ...
#No, ....



#Multiple ellipsis


#31

#Apakah diterima .... atau tidak ...  ......., dia bertekad mengawini gadis itu.


Apakah diterima atau tidak, dia bertekad mengawini gadis itu.

#what DI-accept [proposal-3.POSS] or NEG [DI-accept] [proposal-3.POSS] [by parents girl that], 3SG BER-intend MEN-marry-i girl that.
#Whether his proposal is accepted or not accepted by the girl's parents, he intended to marry the girl.



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp.365-369 ) 



#Coordinating conjunctions


#Indonesian uses the following coordinating conjuctions to conjoin two or more words, 
#phrases or clauses in a sentence.


#Coordinators

#dan 'and'
#atau 'or'
#tetapi, tapi, akan tetapi 'but'
#lalu 'then'
#kemudian 'then', 'afterwards'
#serta 'and, 'as well as'
#bahkan 'and more over', 'what's more'
#sedangkan 'while', 'whereas'
#sementara 'while (at the same time)'
#sambil, seraya 'while (two actions performed by the same person)'



#Coordinators dan 'and',atau 'or', tetapi 'but', serta or beserta
#are very common in Indonesian. They link words, phrases and clauses.

#Words and phrases


#EXAMPLES:

#1

gadis yang cantik dan pintar

#girl REL beautiful and clever
#a beautiful and clever girl



#2

Bapak dan ibu

#faher and mother
#Father and mother


#3

Yang ini atau yang itu?

#REL this or REL that?
#this one or that one?


#4

Itu bukan gitar tapi biola

#that NEG guitar but violin
#That is not a guitar but a violin 


#5

Anak-anak sekolah serta orangtua mereka 

#child-REDUP school and parents 3PL
#The school children and their parents


#Coordination of more than two items.
#The coordinating conjunction will appear between the last two items.

#6

Ruangan ini untuk Immanuel, Wene, Donna, Hannah dan Flora

#Room this for Immanuel, Wene, Donna, Hannah and Flora
#This room is for Immanuel, Wene, Donna, Hannah and Flora


#7

Rapat ini dihadiri oleh guru-guru, siswa-siswi SMP Bosnik dan SMP Opiaref beserta para orangtua siswa

#meeting this DI-attend by teacher-REDUP, student-REDUP SMP Bosnik and SMP Opiaref and PL.Mrk parents student
#This meeting is attended by teachers, SMP Bosnik and SMP Opiaref students and their parents


#Serta is often used to add a final or extra item to a list or sequence
#of things'events.


#8

Gubernur, kepala-kepala bagian dan para pejabat serta istri-istri mereka

#governor, head-REDUP section and PL.MARK official together.with wife-REDUP 3PL
#Governor, head of sections and officials and their wives

#The wives of the governor, the head of sections and the officials.


#The two or more words or phrases must be of the same kind.


#Ungrammatical:


#9

Anak nakal dan bermain (0! 0 0 0)

#child naughty and BER-play
#A naughty and play child

#Nakal 'naughty' (Adjective) cannot be conjoined with bermain 'to play'
#(verb). 


#Clauses


#EXAMPLES:

#Two independent clauses can be conjoined with coordinators dan, atau, or
#beserta.

#10

Mereka makan di restoran Padang

#3PL eat in restaurant Padang
#They had a meal at Padang Restaurant 


#11

Mereka minum di restoran Padang

#3PL drink in restaurant Padang
#They had drinks at Padang Restaurant 


#Complex sentence:

#12

Mereka makan dan minum di restoran Padang

#3PL eat and drink in restaurant Padang
#They ate and drank at Padang Restaurant


#When two transitive verbs are conjoined in a sentence the
#subject will appear before the first verb but the object 
#after the second verb. Observe the following sentences.


#13

Andi membayar paket itu

#Andi MEN-pay package that
#Andi paid the package

#14

Andi mengambil paket itu

#Andi  MEN-take package that
#Andi took the package


#15

Andi membayar dan mengambil paket itu

#Andi MEN-pay and MEN-take package that
#Andi paid and took the package


#In (15) the subject of membayar 'to pay' and mengambil 'to take'
#is Andi.

#The sentence will be ungrammatical if we put Andi again as the subject 
#of the second verb. 


#Ungrammatical:

#16

Andi membayar dan Andi mengambil paket itu (0! 0 0  0)

#Andi MEN-pay and  Andi MEN-take package that
#Andi paid and Andi took the package


#17

Badu siswa yang rajin tapi dia sering sakit-sakitan

#Badu student REL diligent but 3SG often ill-REDUP
#Badu is a diligent student but he is often ill


#18

Badu siswa yang rajin tapi sering sakit-sakitan

#Badu student REL diligent but often ill-REDUP
#Badu is a diligent student but is often ill


#Coordinators lalu, kemudian, serta, bahkan, sedangkan, sementara, 
#sambil, and seraya only link clauses. They do not link phrases.

#Below are examples of each of the coordinating conjunctions.


#Lalu 'then'


#19

Dia mencuci pring, lalu memasak nasi

#3SG MEN-wash plate, then MEN-cook rice
#He washed the plates, then boiled the rice


#The order of (19) cannot be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:


#20

lalu memasak nasi, Dia mencuci pring (0! 0 0 0)

#then MEN-cook rice, 3SG MEN-wash plate
#He washed the plates, then boiled the rice



#kemudian 'then', 'afterwards'


#21

Mereka mengunjungi kota Sorong 

#3PL MEN-visit-I town Sorong
#They visited Sorong town

kemudian mereka melanjutkan perjalanan ke Manokwari 

#then 3PL ME-continue-KAN PER-walk-AN to Manokwari
#then they continued the trip to Manokwari.

#The order of (22)cannot be reversed.

#Ungrammatical:

#22

kemudian mereka melanjutkan perjalanan ke Manokwari 

#then 3PL ME-continue-KAN PER-walk-AN to Manokwari
#then they continued the trip to Manokwari.

Mereka mengunjungi kota Sorong (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL MEN-visit-I town Sorong
#They visited Sorong town


#Bahkan 'and more over', 'what's more'


#Bahkan is used to add extra information or evidence.
#It usually shows a surprising or unexpected thing. 

#23

Semua menyanyi, bahkan Bapak Kepala Sekolah pun ikut menyanyi

#all MEN-sing, even father head school also follow MEN-sing
#Everyone sang, in fact even the Head master joined in the singing.


#Ungrammatical

#24

Bahkan Bapak Kepala Sekolah pun ikut menyanyi (0! 0 0 0)

#even father head school also follow MEN-sing
#in fact even the Head master joined in the singing.


#Sedangkan 'while', 'whereas'


#25

Kakak saya pegawai negeri sedangkan saya hanya seorang nelayan

#elder.brother/sister employee state whereas 1SG only SE-CLASS fisherman
#My elder brother/sister is a civil servant whereas I am just a fisherman


#Sementara 'while (at the same time)'

#Coordinator sementara 'while' is used when we talk about 
#two different events happening at the same time.

#26

Kami beristirahat siang sementara mereka menyiapkan ruang rapat

#3PL.INCL BER-rest afternoon while 3PL MEN-prepare-KAN room meeting
#We were having an afternoon rest while they prepared the meeting room


#27

sementara mereka menyiapkan ruang rapat kami beristirahat siang 

#while 3PL MEN-prepare-KAN room meeting 3PL.INCL BER-rest afternoon
#We were having an afternoon rest while they prepared the meeting room


 
#Conjunction sementara introduces information that contrasts with that 
#given in an immediately preceeding sentence or the earlier part of
#the current sentence.


#28

Kami setuju sementara mereka menolak keputusan itu.

#1PL.INCL agree but 3PL MEN-refuse KE-decide-AN that.
#We agreed but they refused that decision.


#The order of (28) cannot be reversed.

#29

sementara mereka menolak keputusan itu kami setuju.  (0! 0 0 0) 

#but 3PL MEN-refuse KE-decide-AN that 1PL.INCL agree .
#We agreed but they refused that decision.


#sambil, seraya 'while (two actions performed by the same person)'


#Sambil 'at the same time', 'simultaneously'. When we talk about one person
#doing two things at the same time.


#30

Susi menyanyi sambil menyiram bunga

#Susi MEN-sing while MEN-water flower
#Susi was singing while watering the flowers


#Ungrammatical:

#30

Susi menyanyi sambil Susi menyiram bunga (0! 0 0 0)

#Susi MEN-sing while MEN-water flower
#Susi was singing while watering the flowers


#31

Sambil menyanyi Susi menyiram bunga

#while MEN-sing Susi MEN-water flower
#Susi was singing while watering the flowers


#Ungrammatical:

#32

Sambil Susi menyanyi menyiram bunga (0! 0 0 0)

#while Susi MEN-sing MEN-water flower
#Susi was singing while watering the flowers


#Seraya 'while'


#33

Dia mengatakan hal itu seraya mengangkat mukanya dan melihat kepada saya.

#3SG MEN-say-KAN rhing that while  MEN-rise face-3POSS and ME-see to 1SG
#He said that while raising his face and looking at me



#Coordination without coordinator

#Parataxis;
#Two units is coordinated without a coordinator. they are placed after
#one another without any presence of a coordinator.

#34

Kesenangan, kedamaian, kesejahteraan, adalah tujuan hidup saya.

#Ke-happy-AN, KE-peace-AN, KE-welfare-AN COP purpose life 1SG
#Happiness, peace and welfare are the purpose of my life




#Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of time and condition


#This documents is organised into two sections:

#Clauses of time
#Clauses of condition



#Clauses of time

#sebelum 'before'
#sesudah, setelah 'after'
#sejak 'since'
#sampai 'until'
#ketika, waktu 'when'


#Conjuction sebelum before (something else happens).



#1

Sebelum pergi ke sekolah kami membantu ibu

#before go to school 1PL MEN-help mother
#We helped mother before going to school

#A sentence can have one main clause and one subordinate clause.
#The  main clause can stand alone as a sentence or as an
#independent clause


#2

Kami membantu ibu

#1PL MEN-help mother
#We helped mother

#The subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.


#Ungrammatical:


#3

Sebelum pergi ke sekolah (0! 0 0 0)

#before go to school  
#Before going to school



#COnjuction sebelum 'before (a certain time)


#4

Sebelum tanggal 25 Desember kami membeli berbagai perhiasan Natal

#before date 25 December 1PL MEN-buy various PER-decorate-AN Christmas
#We bought different kinds of Christmas decoration before 25th of December



#Conjuction sesudah 'after (a certain time)'


#5

Mereka akan datang sesudah bulan puasa

#3PL will come after month fasting
#They will come after the fasting month


#Conjuction sesudah 'after (something else has happened)'

#6

Sesudah ayahnya meninggal, dia tinggal bersama kakaknya

#after father-3SG.POSS die, 3SG live with elder-3SG.POSS
#After his father died, he lived with his elder sister/brother



#Setelah 'after'


#7

Saya mengunjungi orangtua saya setelah saya menyelesaikan pelatihan itu

#1SG MEN-visit-I parents 1SG after 1SG MEN-finish-KAN PE-train-AN that
#I visited my parents after I finished the training


#If the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as the subject
#of the main clause then it can be omitted. 


#8

Saya mengunjungi orangtua saya setelah menyelesaikan pelatihan itu

#1SG MEN-visit-I parents 1SG after MEN-finish-KAN PE-train-AN that
#I visited my parents after finishing the training


#The subordinate clause can occur before or after the main clause.


#9

Polisi datang setelah kami melaporkan kecelakaan itu

#Police come after 1PL ME-report KE-accident-AN that
#The police came after we reported that accident


#10

Setelah kami melaporkan kecelakaan itu polisi datang 

#after 1PL ME-report KE-accident-AN that police come 
#The police came after we reported that accident



#sejak 'since'


#11

Sejak tiba di Manokwari dia sering marah-marah

#Since arrive in Manokwari 3SG often angry-REDUP
#Since coming to Manokwari he often gets angry


#Conjunction sejak with expressions denoting a period of 
#time followed by yang lalu 'REL ago'.


#12

Sejak kapan anda tinggal di sini?

#since when 2SG live at here?
#Since when have you lived here?


#13

Saya sudah tinggal di sini sejak dua bulan yang lalu

#1SG already live in here since two month REL ago
#I have lived here since two months ago



#sampai 'until'


#Conjunction sampai 'until' is often used as preposition 
#in declarative/affirmative sentences.


#14

Kami akan menunggu di sini sampai mereka kembali dari Biak

#1PL will MEN-wait in here until 3PL return from Biak
#We will wait here until they return from Biak


#Ungrammatical:


#15

Sampai mereka kembali dari Biak kami akan menunggu di sini (0! 0 0 0)

#until 3PL return from Biak 1PL will MEN-wait in here
#We will wait here until they return from Biak


#Conjunction sampai 'until, to (a certain time)'


#16

Profesor Wanggai menjabat Rektor UNIPA dari tahun 2001 sampai tahun 2007

#Professor Wanggai MEN-hold.a.position rector UNIPA from year 2001 until year 2007
#Professor Wanggai held a position as UNIPA rector from 2001 until 2007.



#ketika 'when' 



#17

Andi sedang makan siang ketika kami datang

#Andi in.the.process.of eat noon when 1PL come
#Andi was having lunch when we came 


#18

Ketika kami datang Bapak sedang istirahat

#when 1PL come father in.the.process.of rest
#Father was having a rest when we came


#Ketika is not a question word. It cannot be used to ask questions.
#Ketika always refers to the past.


#19

Ketika kami hendak berangkat, ibu memberikan kami beberapa oleh-oleh.

#when 1PL about.to leave, mother MEN-give-KAN 1PL some present-REDUP
#Mother gave us some presents when we were about to leave


#waktu 'when', at the time when.


#20

Waktu kami tiba di Manokwari Universitas Papua belum ada

#when 1PL arrive in Manokwari university Papua not.yet exist
#The University of Papua was not established yet when we arrived in Manokwari


#21

Universitas Papua belum ada waktu kami tiba di Manokwari

#University Papua not.yet exist when 1PL arrive in Manokwari
#The University of Papua was not etablished yet when we arrived in Manokwari




#Clauses of condition


#kalau, jika, jikalau 'if, when'
#bila, apabila  'when, whenever, if'
#asal, asalkan 'provided that'
#seandainya, andaikata, sekiranya 'supossing that, if'


#Conjunction kalau 'if' 

#When we are talking about something that may or may not happen
#or be true.


#22

Kalau dia nakal, beritahu ibu.

#if 3SG naughty tell mother
#Tell mother if he is naughty


#23

Kalau kamu mau, saya bisa beli komputer ini sekarang

#if 2SG want, 1SG can buy computer this now
#If you want, I can buy this computer now


#Conjunction kalau 'whenever'


#24

Saya selalu pusing kalau saya makan pinang

#1SG always dizzy whenever 1SG eat betelnut
#I always feel dizzy whenever I eat betelnut


#25

Kalau ribut begini, saya tidak bisa berkonsentrasi penuh pada pelajaran saya 

#Whenever noisy like.this, 1SG can BER-concentrate full on lesson 1SG
#I cannot concentrate on my lesson whenever it is noisy like this


#Conjunction kalau 'that' Kalau is used after certain verbs and adjectives 
#to introduce the next clause.


#26

Saya khawatir kalau dia tidak bisa datang

#1SG worry that 1SG NEG can come
#I am worried that he cannot come


#27

Itu hal yang biasa kalau orangtua kelelahan setelah berjalan jauh.

#that thing usual if parents KE-tired-AN after BER-walk far
#It is a normal thing that parents are tired after walking long distance


#Jika 'in the event that, if'


#28

Jika anda tidak datang dia pasti kecewa

#if 2SG NEG come 3SG surely disappointed
#If you do not come he will surely be disappointed


#29

Jika dia  tidak mandi, badannya pasti kotor

#If 3SG NEG have.a.shower, body-3SG.POSS surely dirty
#If he does not take a shower, his body will be dirty

#Jikalau is a more formal and much less frequent variant of jika.

#Jika expreses a conditional clause i.e. a clause saying that something
#will happen only if something else happens beforehand.


#30

Mereka akan menikah jikalau orangtuanya setuju  

#3PL will ME-marry if parents-3SG.POSS agree
#They will get married if her parents agree



#Bila 'in the event that, if'


#31

Saya minta maaf bila ada diantara anda yang tersinggung

#1SG ask apology if there in-among 2PL REL offended
#I do apologize if there is any of you who is offended


#32

Apa yang harus kami lakukan bila terjadi gempa tektonik?

#what REL must 1PL do if TER-occur earthquake tectonic?
#What should we do if a tectonic earthquake happens?


#Apabila 'if, in the event that'


#33

Mereka bertanya apa yang akan terjadi apabila keputusan itu dibatalkan

#3PL BER-ask what REL will TER-occur if KE-decide-AN that DI-cancel-KAN
#They ask what would happen if the decision is cancelled


#Asal 'provided, on the condition that'


#34

Kami bisa ikut kegiatan itu satu hari penuh asal kami diberi makan dan akomodasi

#1PL can follow activity that one day full provided 1PL DI-give mean and accomodation
#We can take part in that activity provided we are given meal and accomodation  


#Seandainya 'supposing, in the event that, if'


#35

Seandainya saya memiliki banyak uang saya akan mengunjungi Opera House di Sydney

#If 1SG ME-have many/much money 1SG will MEN-visit-I Opera House in Sydney
#If I had much money I would visit the Opera House in Sydney

#Seandainya often indicates that something is unlikely to occur.


#Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of reason, purpose, extent


#This document is organised into three sections:

#Clauses of reason
#Clauses of purpose
#Clauses of extent


#Clauses of reason

#karena, oleh karena 'because'
#sebab, oleh sebab 'because'
#lantaran 'because'
#gara-gara 'because'
#mentang-mentang 'just because'
#kalau-kalau 'that perhaps, in case'


#karena 'because, because of'


#1

Oleh karena sakit dia tidak pergi ke sekolah

#because sick 3SG NEG go to school
#Because of ilness he did not go to school


#2

Saya terlambat karena mobil saya mogok

#1SG TER-late because car 1SG refuse.to.start
#I am late because my car refused to start


#3

Anak-anak tidak datang sebab orangtua mereka melarang

#child-REDUP NEG come because parents 3PL ME-prohibit
#The children did not come because their parents did not allow (them).

#4

Oleh sebab itu kami akan tinggal di sini sampai bapak pulang

#because that 1PL.EXCL will stay at here untill father come.home
#Because of that we will stay here until father comes home.


#Colloquial:

#5

Lantaran marah dia tidak hati-hati mengemudikan mobilnya

#because angry 3SG NEG careful MEN-drive-KAN car-3SG.POSS
#Because of anger he did not drive his car carefully.



#gara-gara 'all because, all because of, for no reason other than'


#Gara-gara implies that something negative happens and someone or something
#is to blame for what has happened.


#6

Ibu marah gara-gara kamu

#Mother angry because you
#Mother is angry because of you


#7

Gara-gara kamu Pak Napitupulu tidak mau mengajar kami


#because you sir Napitupulu NEG want MEN-teach 1PL.EXCL
#Because of you Mr Napitupulu did not want to teach us


#8

Saya terlambat naik pesawat gara-gara makan es krim

#1SG TER-late ride.on plane because eat ice cream
#I was late to board the plane because of eating ice cream


#Mentang-mentang 'just because' 

#Mentang-mentang expresses annoyance at someone's behaviour.


#9

Mentang-mentang sudah jadi orang kaya dia lupa teman-temannya 

#Just.because already become person rich 3SG forget friend-REDUP.3SG.POSS
#He forgot his friends just because (he) has become a rich man


#Mentang-mentang cannot be used for first person subjects.
#It is not acceptable expresing annoyance toward someone's own
#behaviour.


#Syntactically acceptable but pragmatically odd or inappropriate:


#10

Mentang-mentang sudah bergelar master saya tidak menghormati guru saya 

#Just.because already BER-degree master 1SG NEG MEN-repect-I teacher 1SG
#I did not respect my teacher just because (I) have possessed a master degree.


#Kalau-kalau 'that perhaps, in case'
#Kalau-kalau expresses a doubt or a possibility. It usually follows 
#particular verbs or adjectives.


#11

Kami khawatir kalau-kalau kami gagal pada ujian akhir

#1PL.EXCL worry that.perhaps 1PL.EXCL fail in exam final
#We are woried that perhaps we will fail in the final exam


#12

Mereka terus melihat ke jalan kalau-kalau mobil bupati akan lewat

#3PL continuously ME-see to road in.case car regent will pass
#They continuously look at the road in case the regent car will pass (along the road)


#The subordinate clause with kalau-kalau cannot be placed at the beginning.


#Ungrammatical:


#13

Kalau-kalau kami gagal pada ujian akhir kami khawatir (0! 0 0 0)

#that.perhaps 1PL.EXCL fail in exam final 1PL.EXCL worry
#We are woried that perhaps we will fail in the final exam


#Ungrammatical:

#14

Kalau-kalau mobil bupati akan lewat mereka terus melihat ke jalan (0! 0 0 0)

#in.case car regent will pass 3PL continuously ME-see to road 
#They continuously look at the road in case the regent car will pass (along the road)
 


#Clauses of purpose

#supaya, agar, agar supaya 'so, so that'
#untuk, guna 'to, in order to'

#Supaya 'in order that, so that'
#Supaya implies a hope that something (a goal) may be achieved. 


#15

Kamu harus belajar yang baik supaya kamu bisa lulus ujian

#2SG must BEL-study REL good so that 2SG can pass exam
#You must study well so that you can pass the exam


#16

Anak-anak yang kurang pandai harus dibantu agar mereka cepat mengerti pelajaran ini

#child-REDUP REL lack smart must DI-help so.that 3PL quick MEN-understand PEL-teach-AN this
#The less smart children must be helped so that they quickly understand this lesson



#Subordinate clause with supaya or agar can be placed at the beginning of
#the sentence.
 

#17

Supaya bisa berhasil mereka harus latihan dua kali sehari

#In.order.that can BER-success 3PL must exercise two time one-day
#In order to succeed  they must (do) the exercise twice a day



#Untuk 'to'



#18


Kami minta mereka untuk tinggal di sini beberapa hari

#1PL.EXCL request 3PL to stay at here few day
#We asked them to stay here (for) a few days


#19

Saya pergi ke bioskop untuk menonton filem

#1SG go to theatre to ME-watch film
#I went to the theatre to watch a film


#20


Guna menyelesaikan masalah ini para gubernur dipanggil ke Jakarta

#to MEN-finish-KAN problem this PL.MRK governor DI-call to Jakarta
#In order to solve this problem the governors were called (to come) to Jakarta



#Clauses of extent

#sehingga, sampai, hingga 'until, to the extent that, so that'


#21

Saya menggali tanah sampai saya mendapatkan air

#1SG MEN-dig soil until 1SG MEN-have-KAN water
#I dig the soil until I found water


#22

Ini yang membuat kami bekerja keras sampai kami kelelahan

#this REL MEM-make 1PL.EXCL BE-work hard until 1PL.EXCL KE-tired-AN
#This is what causes us to work hard until we are very tired


#23

Saya tidak akan pernah menyerah hingga akhir hidup saya

#1SG NEG will ever MEN-give until end life 1SG
#I will never give up until the end of my life



#Sehingga 'so that, as a consequence, consequently, 
#so that as a consequence.
#Sehingga expresses an outcome of what someone has just mentioned).


#24

Mereka berangkat lebih awal sehingga mereka mendapatkan kereta pertama

#3PL leave more early so.that 3PL MEN-have-KAN train first
#They left earlier so they got the first train


#25

Harga minyak naik sehingga harga barang-barang menjadi semakin mahal

#price oil rise so.that price good-REDUP become increasingly expensive
#The oil price is rising so the price of goods becomes increasingly expensive


#Subordinate clause with sehingga cannot be placed at the beginning of 
#the sentence.



#Ungrammatical:

#26

Sehingga harga barang-barang semakin mahal harga minyak naik (0! 0 0 0)

#so.that price good-REDUP become increasingly expensive price oil rise
#The oil price is rising so the price of goods becomes increasingly expensive




 





#Subordinating conjunctions: clauses of concession, resemblance, contrast; clauses with no subordinator


#This document is organised into four sections:

#Clauses of concession (Concessive clauses)
#Clauses of resemblance
#Clauses of contrast
#Subordinate clauses without a subordinator


#Clauses of concession (Concessive clauses)


#The action or state expressed in the main clause occurs despite what is 
#stated in the subordinate clause.


#meskipun
#walaupun
#sekalipun
#biarpun
#kendatipun
#sungguhpun,
#padahal 'whereas, although' 


#The short forms of meskipun, walaupun, and kendatipun are meski, walau,
#and kendati.

#All of the above conjunctions are translated 'although'.

#1

Meskipun ada televisi di rumah,  kami tidak pernah menonton film seri itu.

#although be television in house, 1PL.EXCL NEG ever ME-watch film serial that
#Although there is a TV at home, we never watch that serial film


#2

Walaupun hujan turun, kami pergi ke sekolah

#although rain fall, 1PL.EXCL go to school
#Although it rained, we went to school


#The order of sentences 1 and 2 can be reversed. The subordinated clauses can occur
#at the beginning of the sentence.


#3

Kami tidak pernah menonton film seri itu meskipun ada televisi di rumah.

#1PL.EXCL NEG ever ME-watch film serial that, although be television in house
#Although there is a TV at home, we never watch that serial film



#4

kami tetap pergi ke sekolah walaupun hujan turun

#1PL.EXCL go to school although rain fall 
#Although it rained, we went to school


#Notice the lack of comma in this word order.


#A concessive clause is often followed by tetapi 'but' or mor formally
#by the conjunction namun 'however, but'.


#5

Walaupun tuan Smith orang Amerika tetapi dia bisa berbicara bahasa Indonesia

#although Mr Smith person America but 3SG can BER-speak language Indonesia
#Although Mr Smith is an American, he can speak Indonesian

#Another conjuction which is often used to indicate that what is stated 
#in the subordinate clause (facts, ideas, etc) contrasts with what 
#is stated in the main clause.

#6

Dia berpura-pura tidak mengerti, padahal dia tahu masalah itu

#3SG BER-pretend NEG MEN-understand, in.fact 3SG know problem that
#He pretended as if he did not understand but in fact he knew the problem


#The subordinate clause with padahal cannot occur at the beginning of
#the sentence.


#Ungrammatical:


#7

Padahal dia tahu masalah itu, dia berpura-pura tidak tahu (0! 0 0 0)

#in.fact 3SG know problem that,3SG BER-pretend NEG MEN-understand
#He pretended as if he did not understand but in fact he knew the problem


#Clauses of means and manner

#dengan 'by, by means of' 
#tanpa 'without' 

#Conjunction dengan 'by, by means of' is always put in front of a verb.
#It indicates how something is done or achieved. The verb that follows 
#dengan is usually translated in the present participle form in English.


#8

Pencuri merampok bank itu dengan memecahkan kaca jendela

#PEN-steal ME-rob bank that by ME-break-KAN glass window
#Thieves robbed that bank by breaking the window's glass


#9

Dengan belajar bahasa Inggris, saya dapat berbicara dengan orang-orang asing

#by BEL-teach language English, 1SG can BER-speak with person-REDUP foreign
#By learning English, I could speak with foreigners


#10

Dengan menggunakan jala, kami menangkap banyak ikan

#by MEN-use-KAN fish.net, 1PL.EXCL MEN-catch many fish
#By using a fish net, we cath lots of fish


#Conjuction tanpa 'without' is placed before a verb. It indicates a means
#or manner by which an action is not perfomed or achieved.


#11

Anak itu pergi tanpa minta izin

#child that go without ask permission
#That child went without asking permission


#12

Tanpa guru yang baik, ruangan kelas yang lengkap ini tidak berguna

#without teacher REL good, room-AN class REL complete this NEG BER-use
#Without a good teacher, this fully equipped classroom is not useful 
 

#13

Hari ini Pak Rumkorem mengajar tanpa memberikan latihan-latihan

#day this sir Rumkorem MEN-teach without MEN-give-KAN train-AN-REDUP
#Today Mr Rumkorem was teaching without giving any exercises




#Clauses of resemblance


#seakan-akan 'as if'
#seolah-olah 'as if'


#Seakan-akan and seolah-olah 'as if'  indicate that the action of the main 
#clause is performed in the way it would be done if (giving the impression that)
#what is expressed in the subordinate clause were the case.


#14

Dia membagi-bagikan uangnya seakan-akan dia seorang yang kaya-raya

#3SG MEN-divide-KAN money-3SG.POSS as.if 3SG one-CLASS REL rich-REDUP
#He shared his money as if he is a very rich man 


#15

Anak-anak takut kepada saya seolah-olah saya adalah monster yang jahat

#child-REDUP afraid to 1SG as.if 1SG COP monster REL cruel
#The children are afraid of me as if I am a cruel monster


#16

Yohanes berpura-pura jatuh seakan-akan dia sedang sakit

#John BER-pretend fall as.if 3SG in.the.process.of ill
#John pretended to fall as if he was ill



#Clauses of contrast


#daripada 'rather than, instead of'
#alih-alih 'rather than, instead of'
#melainkan, tetapi 'but rather,instead'


#These conjunctions express contrast to what is said in the main clause.


#17

Daripada naik kapal laut, lebih baik kami naik pesawat terbang

#rather than ride boat ship, better 1PL.EXCL ride plane fly
#Rather than travelling by boat, it is better to travel by aeroplane


#Conjunction daripada is often followed by lebih baik or sebaiknya
#'it's better to ...'.


#18

Mereka memilih menginap di hotel ini daripada melanjutkan perjalanan ke Bandung

#3PL ME-choose MEN-stay in hotel this rather than ME-continue-KAN PEr-walk-AN to Bandung
#They chose to stay in this hotek rather thab continuing their trip to Bandung


#Sentences 17 and 18 can be reordered. The subordinate clauses can be placed 
#at the begining of the sentence.


#19

lebih baik kami naik pesawat terbang daripada naik kapal laut, 

#better 1PL.EXCL ride plane fly rather than ride boat ship
#Rather than travelling by boat, it is better to travel by aeroplane


#20

daripada melanjutkan perjalanan ke Bandung, mereka memilih menginap di hotel ini 

#rather than ME-continue-KAN PEr-walk-AN to Bandung, 3PL ME-choose MEN-stay in hotel this
#They chose to stay in this hotek rather than continuing their trip to Bandung


#21

Alih-alih ketinggalan kereta, ia memilih naik bus saja

#instead of KE-leave-AN train, 3SG ME-choose ride bus only
#Instead of being left by a train, 3SG chose to ride a bus


#Sentences 21 cannot be reversed. The subordinate clauses with alih-alih
#must be placed at the beginning of the sentence.


Ungrammatical:


#22

Ia memilih naik bus saja alih-alih ketinggalan kereta

#3SG ME-choose ride bus only instead of KE-leave-AN train
#Instead of being left by a train, 3SG chose to ride a bus


#23


saya tidak mengusir mereka, melainkan mengajak mereka untuk tinggal bersama kami

#1SG NEG MEN-refuse 3PL, but MEN-invite 3PL to stay with 1PL.EXCL
#I did not refuse them, instead I invited them to stay with us

#Sentences 23 cannot be reversed. The subordinate clauses with melainkan
#cannot be placed at the beginning of the sentence.


#Ungrammatical:

#24

Melainkan mengajak mereka untuk tinggal bersama kami, kami tidak mengusir mereka (0! 0 0 0) 

#but MEN-invite 3PL to stay with 1PL.EXCL, 1SG NEG MEN-refuse 3PL, 
#I did not refuse them, instead I invited them to stay with us




#Subordinate clauses without a subordinator



#Subordinate clauses without a subordinate clause is common in Indonesian.
#The subordinate clause does not have a subject. Its subject is the same as
#the subject of the main clause.

#Subordinate clauses express reasons for the action of the main clause.


#25

Mendengar berita itu, Ayah segera pergi ke Jakarta

#MEN-hear news that, father immediately go to Jakarta
#Hearing the news, father went to Jakarta immediately


#26

Ia berdiri di pinggir kapal, melambai-lambaikan tangannya

#3SG BER-stand in side boat, ME-wave-REDUP-KAN hand-3SG.POSS
#He stood up on the side of the boat waving his hands


#The subordinate clause can oocur before or after the main clause.
#However, shifting the order of the subordinate clause and the main clause
#can cause a sentence ungrammatical.


#Sentences 25 and 26 cannot be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:

#27

Ayah segera pergi ke Jakarta mendengar berita itu (0! 0 0 0)

#father immediately go to Jakarta MEN-hear news that
#Hearing the news, father went to Jakarta immediately


#Ungrammatical:


#28

Melambai-lambaikan tangannya, ia berdiri di pinggir kapal (0! 0 0 0)

#ME-wave-REDUP-KAN hand-3SG.POSS, 3SG BER-stand in side boat
#He stood up on the side of the boat waving his hands


#Adverbs of manner, adjectives used as adverbs, reduplicated adjectives, adverbs with dengan and secara


#Adverbs

#This document presents several ways in which adverbs of manner are derived
#from adjectives.

#Adverbs of manner can be derived from adjectives using the following formation:

#Adjectives used directly as adverbs
#Reduplicated Adjectives
#Adverbs formed with adverb marker dengan 
#Adverbs formed with adverb marker secara 'in such-and-such a way, a manner/a fashion'



#Adjectives used directly as adverbs


#1

AP: sakit keras

#ill hard
#seriously ill


#2

VP: bekerja keras

#BE-work hard
#work hard


#3

Rahima berjalan cepat ke arah saya

#Rahima BER-walk quick to direction 1SG
#Rahima walked quickly towards me


#4

Mereka akan cepat mendapat pekerjaan

#3PL will quick MEN-have PE-work-AN
#They will get a job quickly


#5

Dia susah makan

#3SG difficult eat
#He hardly eats


#6

Dia pandai berpidato

#3SG clever BER-speech
#He speaks well


#Examples 1 - 6 show that adjectives can be used as adverbs
#without a preposition or reduplication.



#Reduplicated Adjectives


#7

Anak itu berteriak keras-keras

#child that BER-shout loud-REDUP
#That child shouted loudly


#8

Rahima berjalan cepat-cepat

#Rahima BER-walk quick-REDUP
#Rahima walked quickly


#9

Orang sakit selalu berjalan pelan-pelan

#person sick always BER-walk slow-REDUP
#A sick person always walks slowly


#10

Perhatikan pelajaran ini baik-baik! 

#pay.attention-KAN PER-teach-AN this good-REDUP
#Pay attention to this lesson carefully!'



#Adverbs formed with adverb marker dengan 

#Adverb marker dengan occurs in front of adjectives and turns them
#into adverbs. Generally, it turns the adjectives into the adverbs
#of manner.

#Dengan is equivalent to English suffix -ly which turns adjectives
#into adverbs.


#Examples:


#11

AP: cepat

#quick
#quick


#12

AdvP: dengan cepat

#with quick
#quickly


#13

AP: hati-hati

#careful
#careful


#14

AdvP: dengan hati-hati

#with careful
#carefully, cautiously


#15

AP : gembira

#happy
#happy


#16

AdvP: dengan gembira

#with happy
#happily


#17

AdvP: dengan baik

#with good
#well


#18

Rahima berjalan dengan cepat

#Rahima BER-walk with quick
#Rahima walked quickly



#Suffix -nya can be attached to adjectives after the adverb marker dengan.


#19

Rahima berjalan dengan cepatnya

#Rahima BER-walk with quick-NYA
#Rahima walked quickly


#20

Mereka menerima piala itu dengan gembira

#3PL MEN-receive trophy that with happy
#They received the trophy happily


#Adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.


#21

Dengan gembira mereka menerima piala itu

#with happy 3PL MEN-receive trophy that 
#They received the trophy happily



#Not all adjectives can be turned into adverbs with dengan.


#The following adverbial phrases are syntactically acceptable but pragmatically 
#odd or inappropriate:


#22

dengan lucu 

#with funny
#in a funny way


#23

dengan bodoh

#with stupid
#stupidly


#24

dengan aneh

#with strange
#strangely



#Suffix -NYA can make 22-24 grammatically acceptable.


#25

dengan lucunya 

#with funny-NYA
#in a funny way



#Adverbs formed with secara 'in such-and-such a way, a manner/a fashion'


#Secara appears in front of adjectives to form adverbial phrases.


#26

Kami menyelesaikan masalah itu secara bijaksana

#1PL.EXCL MEN-finish-KAN problem that in such-and-such a way wise
#We solved the problem wisely



#27

Pak Nainggolan menjelaskan pelajaran itu secara singkat

#sir Nainggolan MEN-clear-KAN PER-teach-AN that in such-and-such a way brief
#Mr Nainggolan explained the lesson briefly


#28


Pemerintah memberikan bantuan secara langsung kepada masyarakat Jayapura

#government MEM-give-KAN help-AN in such-and-such a way direct to people Jayapura
#The government give aid directly to the people of Jayapura


#Negation

#Adjectives following secara can be negated.


#29

Pemerintah memberikan bantuan secara tidak langsung kepada masyarakat

#government MEM-give-KAN help-AN in such-and-such a way NEG direct to people Jayapura
#The government gave aid to the the people of Jayapura indirectly



#Adverbial words, adverbs derived from adjectives, numbers as adverbs


#This document presents certain adverbial words and other processes of forming 
#adverbial phrases. 

#The document is organised into three sections:

#Adverbial words

#Adverbs derived from adjectives through the following process:
#NEG + REDUPLICATED ADJECTIVES + NYA
#SE + ADJECTIVES + NOUN
#SE + REDUPLICATED ADJECTIVES + NYA

#Numbers used as adverbs


#Adverbial words

#The following words function as adverbs. 

#terus-menerus 'continous'
#asyik 'busy'
#serentak 'in unison, at the same time (of a number of people acting together'
#sekaligus 'together, at the same time (of action done to several things at once)'
#segera 'immediately
#langsung 'directly, immediately'
#terus 'continuously'
#tetap 'permanently'
#mutlak 'unconditionally'


#These words cannot be used as adjectives. They cannot be reduplicated and
#cannot be preceded by prepositions.


#1

Hujan turun terus-menerus 

#rain fall continue-REDUP  
#It rains continuously  


#2

Pemilu diadakan serentak di seluruh Indonesia

#election DI-be-KAN at.the.same.time in whole Indonesia
#The election was held at the same time in the whole part of Indonesia

#3

Bapak asyik berkebun di belakang rumah

#father busily BER-garden in behind house
#Father is busily gardening at the back of the house


#4

Adik segera mengirim paket itu

#younger brother/sister immediately MEN-send package that
#Younger brother/sister sent that package immediately


#Segera may follow the verb phrase.


#5

Adik mengirim paket itu segera

#younger brother/sister MEN-send package that immediately
#Younger brother/sister sent that package immediately



#Other adverbial words are :


#begini 'like this, in this way'
#seperti ini 'like this, in this way'
#begitu 'like that
#demikian 'like that'
#seperti itu 'like that'


#These words express adverbs of manner.


#6

Mereka memasak ikan begini

#3PL MEN-cook fish in this way
#They cooked fish in this way


#7

Saya menjawab seperti itu

#1SG MEN-answer like that
#I replied that way


#8

Jangan mengeluh seperti itu

#NEG MEN-complain like that
#Don't complain like that



#Adverbs sendirian, seorang diri and sendiri (colloquial) 'alone, on one's own'.


#9

Saya berjalan seorang diri ke pasar

#1SG BER-walk alone to market
#I walked alone to the market


#Seorang diri can occur at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.


#10

Saya berjalan ke pasar seorang diri

#1SG BER-walk to market alone
#I walked alone to the market


#11

Seorang diri saya berjalan ke pasar 

#Alone 1SG BER-walk to market 
#I walked alone to the market



#12

Mengapa kamu duduk sendirian di situ?

#why 2SG sit alone in that.place?
#Whu did you sit there alone?


#13

Besok kamu datang sendiri ke sini!

#Tomorrow 2SG come alone to this.place
#Tomorrow, you come here  alone!



#The reduplicated form of sendiri means 'apart, separately'


#14

Para anggota dewan datang ke rumah bupati sendiri-sendiri

#PL.MRK member parliament come to house regent apart
#The members of the parliament came to the regent's house separately



#sendiri, dengan sendirinya 'by himself/herself/itself, of its own accord'


#15

Anak itu datang dengan sendirinya

#child that come by himself/herself/itself
#That child came by himself



#When the action is performed by an inanimate subject it is translated as
#'automatically'.


#16

Pintu rumah terbuka dengan sendirinya

#door house TER-open by itself
#The door is opened automatically


#17


Pintu rumah terbuka sendiri

#door house TER-open by itself
#The door is opened automatically


#18

Mobil itu bergerak sendiri

#car that BER-move by itself
#The car moves automatically


#19

Mobil itu bergerak dengan sendirinya

#car that BER-move by itself
#The car moves automatically


#Dengan sendirinya can occur at the beginning and at the end of
#the sentence.


#20

dengan sendirinya pintu rumah terbuka 

#by itself door house TER-open 
#The door is opened automatically


#Sendiri only occurs at the end of the sentence. 


#Ungrammatical:

#21

Sendiri pintu rumah terbuka  (0! 0 0 0)

#by itself door house TER-open 
#The door is opened automatically



#Adverbs of manner banyak, ramai 'crowded, large numbers of...'

#Banyak and ramai indicate an action which is performed by large numbers
#of people.  Sneddon claims that this adverb can only appear with passive
#verbs, but we have found several cases of these adverbs with active verbs, 
# such as 23 and 26.


#22

Pameran Waena ramai dikunjungi pengunjung dari berbagai daerah

#exhibition Waena large.numbers.of DI-visit-I PEN-visit from various region
#Waena exhibition was heavily visited by visitors from different regions


#23

Pengunjung dari berbagai daerah ramai mengunjungi pameran Waena

#PEN-visit from various region large.numbers.of MEN-visit exhibition Waena  
#Visitors from different regions heavily visited Waena exhibition


#24

Candi Borobudur banyak dikunjungi wisatawan

#temple Borobudur many DI-visit-I tourist
#Borobudur temple is heavily visited by tourists


#Banyak functions as an adverb in (24) but in (25) it functions as an adjective.

#25

Candi Borobudur dikunjungi banyak wisatawan

#temple Borobudur DI-visit-I many tourist
#Borobudur temple is visited by many tourists


#26

Wisatawan banyak mengunjungi Candi Borobodur

#tourist many  MEN-visit temple Borobudur 
#tourists haavily visited Borobudur temple  



#Adverbs derived from adjectives


#NEG + REDUPLICATED ADJECTIVES + NYA

#The following adjectives can be preceded by a negative followed by 
#a reduplicated adjective and suffix -NYA. They form adverbs which indicate
#that the condition specified by the reduplicated adjective is never achieved.


#putus 'broken'
#jemu 'tired'
#jera 'wary, having learned one's lesson' respectively
#puas 'satisfy'
#bosan 'bored'
#sembuh 'recover'
#henti 'stop'


#27

Hadirin bertepuk tangan tak putus-putusnya

#Audience BER-clap hand NEG broken-REDUP-NYA
#The audience clapped their hands continuously


#Tak putus-putusnya can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.


#28


Tak putus-putusnya hadirin bertepuk tangan

#NEG broken-REDUP-NYA audience BER-clap hand 
#The audience clapped their hands continuously


#29

Anak-anak bermain tidak jemu-jemunya

#Child-REDUP BER-play NEG bored-REDUP-NYA
#The children played tirelessly


#30

Tidak puas-puasnya Yesaya memandang kekasihnya

#NEG satisfy-REDUP-NYA Yesaya MEN-see girlfriend-3SG.POSS
#Yesaya stared at his girlfriend obsessively


#31

Mereka belajar bahasa Inggris tidak bosan-bosannya

#3PL BEL-teach language English NEG bored-REDUP-NYA
#They learned English without ever feeling bored

#32


Ibu tidak sembuh-sembuhnya berobat ke rumah sakit  

#Mother NEG recover-REDUP-NYA BER-medicine to hospital
#Mother had treatment at the hospital without ever recovering (from her illness)


#33

Hannah tak henti-hentinya berlatih vokal

#Hannah NEG stop-REDUP-NYA BER-train vocal
#Hannah never stops practising singing



#SE + ADJECTIVES + NOUN


#Certain adjectives such as puas 'satisfy', kuat 'strong',
#tinggi 'high', and dalam 'deep' can be preceded by prefix se- and
#followed by a noun.


#sepuas hati 'to one's heart's content'
#sekuat tenaga 'with all one's strength'
#setinggi langit 'as high as the sky'
#sedalam lautan 'as deep as the ocean'


#34

Anita menangis sepuas hati

#Anita MEN-cry SE-satisfy heart
#Anita cried to her heart's content


#35

Makanlah sepuas hati kamu

#Eat-LAH SE-satisfy heart 2SG
#Eat as much as you (like)


#36

Jangan takut untuk bermimpi setinggi langit

#NEG afraid to BER-dream SE-high sky
#Do be afraid to dream as high as the sky


#37

Sedalam lautan aku minta maaf padamu

#SE-deep ocean 1SG ask forgive to-2SG
#I apologize from the bottom of my heart


#SE + REDUPLICATED ADJECTIVES + NYA

#Many reduplicated adjectives can be preceded by prefix se- and followed by 
#suffix -NYA. They are translated 'as [base] as possible'
#Another variant of this process is prefix se plus adjectives plus mungkin
#'possible'


#sekeras-kerasnya, sekeras mungkin 'as hard as possible'
#selekas-lekasnya, selekas mungkin 'as quick as possible'
#sedalam-dalamnya, sedalam mungkin 'as deep as possible'
#setingi-tingginya, setinggi mungkin 'as high as possible'
#sebaik-baiknya, sebaik mungkin 'as good as possible'


#38

Kita harus pergi selekas-lekasnya

#1PL.INCL must go as.quick.as.possible
#We must go immediately


#39

Dia dapat melompat setinggi-tingginya

#3SG can ME-jump as.high.as.possible
#He can jump very high


#40

Saya berusaha belajar sebaik mungkin

#1SG BER-try BEL-teach as.good.as possible
#I tried to study very well



#Adverbs based on numbers


#Numbers can be used as adverbs through the following process:

#reduplicated numbers

#dua-dua 'two by two'
#lima-lima 'five by five'

#ber- plus number

#berdua 'both, in two' 
#bersepuluh 'a group contains 10 members'

#number separator marker per or demi:

#satu per satu 'one by one'
#dua demi dua 'two by two'

#The forms indicate the number of people or things involved together in the
#action.


#41

Anak-anak sekolah berbaris dua-dua

#child school BER-line two-REDUP
#The school children lined up two by two


#42

Anak-anak sekolah berbaris dua demi dua

#child school BER-line two per two
#The school children lined up two by two


#43

Mereka pergi berempat

#3Pl go BER-four
#They go in groups of four


#44

Para pencuri dimasukkan satu demi satu ke penjara

#PL.MRK thief DI-enter-KAN one per one to jail
#The thieves were sent to jail one by one



#References:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp. 210-213)

#Temporal adjuncts: Clock time


#Adjuncts of time consist of specific time and relative time.

#Specific times inlude:
#clock times
#days of the week
#months
#years
#dates

#This document presents clock times in Indonesian.


#Clock times

#Clock times are preceded by pukul 'strike' or jam 'hour'.

#1

pukul sepuluh

#strike ten
#ten o'clock


#Ungrammatical

#2

sepuluh pukul (0! 0 0 0)

#ten strike
#ten o'clock


#3

jam tiga

#hour three
#three o'clock


#The word jam 'hour' can follow three 'tiga' but the meaning is different
#from example (3).


#4

tiga jam

#three hour
#three hours


#Ways of expressing parts of the hour (minutes and seconds).


#Lebih 'more' or lewat 'past' are used to indicate minutes after
#the hour. The word menit 'minute' is used optionally.


#5

Jam dua lebih sepuluh menit

#hour two more ten minute
#ten past two


#6

Jam lima lebih sepuluh 

#hour five more ten  
#ten past five


#7

Jam lima lewat sepuluh

#hour five pass ten
#ten past five


#The word jam can be omitted. This occurs in response to a question
#such as:

#8

Pukul berapa sekarang?

#strike how.many now?
#What time is now?


#9

lima lewat sepuluh

#five past ten
#ten past five


#8

Jam berapa sekarang?

#hour how.many now?
#What time is now?


#10

Jam sepuluh tepat

#hour ten exactly
#Ten o'clock

#The word tepat 'exactly' is equivalent with o'clock.
#The words jam and tepat can be omitted. Example (11) and (12)
#are acceptable in response to question (8).


#11

sepuluh tepat

#ten exactly
#Ten o'clock


#12

sepuluh  

#ten  
#Ten o'clock


#The word kurang 'less' is used to indicate minutes before the exact
#hour.


#13

Jam tiga kurang dua puluh menit

#hour three less two tens minute
#twenty to three


#14

enam kurang sepuluh  

#six less ten
#ten to six


#Half 'setengah' and a quarter 'seperempat' are commonly used.


#15

Jam dua belas kurang seperempat

#hour two teens less a quarter
#a quarter to twelve


#The order of (15) can be reversed. Kurang seperempat 'a quarter to'
#can precede the hour.


#16

kurang seperempat jam dua belas 

#less a quarter hour two teens
#a quarter to twelve


#However when using lewat 'pass' or lebih 'pass', the order cannot be
#reversed.


#17

Jam dua belas lewat seperempat

#hour two teens pass a quarter
#a quarter past twelve


#Ungrammatical:


#18

lewat seperempat jam dua belas (0! 0 0 0)

#pass a quarter hour two teens
#a quarter past twelve


#Ungrammatical:

#19

lebih lima menit jam tiga (0! 0 0 0)

#more five minute hour three
#five past three


#Many Indonesians now ommit lewat 'pass' or lebih 'more' and simply
#say the minute after the hour.



#20

Jam dua belas seperempat

#hour two teens a quarter
#a quarter past twelve


#21

dua tiga puluh

#two three tens
#two thirty

#Setengah 'half' can be used for (21). The word setengah 'half' always 
#precedes the hour. The form is different from (21). However, the meaning
#is the same. It means half before the hour. In English it means half past
#the hour. Observe (22).


#22

setengah tiga  

#half three
#thirty minutes to three or two thirty (2.30.


#The order of (22) cannot be reversed


#Ungrammatical:


#23

tiga setengah (0! 0 0 0) 

#three half 
#thirty minutes to three or two thirty (2.30).


#Twenty four hour clock is rarely used in informal speech. Many Indonesians
#use it in formal writing and on radio or TV broadcasts.


#24

Pukul dua puluh satu tiga puluh malam ini

#strike two tens one three tens night this
#thirty past twenty one or half past twenty one (9.30pm) tonight



#Indonesians use four different time markers to indicate parts of the day.
#Pagi 'morning to 11.00am', siang 'between 11.30am to 2pm', 
#sore 'between 3pm to 5.30pm, and malam 'between 6pm to 12am'.


#25

Jam dua belas siang

#hour two teens noon
#Twelve noon (12.00pm)

#26

Jam dua belas tengah malam

#hour two teens middle night 
#Twelve midnight (12.00am)


#27

Jam lima pagi

#hour five morning
#five o'clock (5.00am)


#28

Jam lima sore 

#hour five afternoon
#Five o'clock (5.00pm)


#The words jam 'hour' and pukul 'strike' are optional when answering
#a question about time, however, they are obligatory in sentences.


#29

Kami berangkat jam lima pagi

#1PL.EXCL leave hour five morning
#We departed at five o'clock (5.00am)


#Ungrammatical:


#30

Kami berangkat lima pagi (0! 0 0 0)

#1PL.EXCL leave hour five morning
#We departed at five o'clock (5.00am)


#31

Mereka tiba pukul lima sore 

#3PL arrive hour five afternoon
#They arrived at five o'clock (5.00pm)


#Ungrammatical:


#32

Mereka tiba lima sore (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL arrive five afternoon  
#They arrived at five o'clock (5.00pm)


#Temporal adjuncts: days of the week and their parts 


#This document presents names of days of the week.


#Names of the days of the week:

#Minggu, Ahad 'Sunday'
#Senin 'Monday'
#Selasa 'Tuesday'
#Rabu 'Wednesday'
#Kamis 'Thursday'
#Jumat 'Friday'
#Saturday 'Sabtu'


#The names of the days follow hari 'day'.

#1

Hari Senin

#day Monday
#Monday

#2

Hari Sabtu

#day Saturday
#Saturday


#Parts of the day follow the names of the day.


#3

Hari Selasa pagi

#day Tuesday morning
#Tuesday morning


#4

Hari Jumat sore

#day Friday afternoon
#Friday afternon


#The word hari 'day' can be omitted.


#5

Jumat sore

#Friday afternoon
#Friday afternoon


#The order of the names of the days and parts of the day cannot be 
#reversed.



#Ungrammatical:


#6

Sore Jumat (0! 0 0 0)

#afternoon Friday

#Friday afternoon



#However, malam 'night' can precede or follow the names of the days.


#7

Jumat malam 

#Friday night
#Friday night


#8

malam Jumat

#night Friday
#Thursday night


#Notice that when malam precedes the names of the days it is translated as
#'preceding night (Example 8, the night before Friday)'.


#We can add hari to (7) but not to (8) as example (9) below illustrates.


#Ungrammatical:


#9

hari malam Jumat (0! 0 0 0)

#day night Friday
#Friday night


#Hari can precede names of religious days or national days.


#10

Hari Natal

#day Christmas
#Christmas


#12

Hari Pahlawan Nasional

#day hero national
#remembrance day


#13


Hari OlahRaga Nasional

#day sports national
#National sports day 


#Hari can be omitted from (10) but not from (10 AND (12).


#Ungrammatical:


#14

Pahlawan Nasional (0! 0 0 0)

#hero national
#remembrance day


#Time can be indicated by adjuncts of time such as setiap hari 'every day' 
#and tadi pagi 'this morning' (past) sebentar malam 'this evening' (FUT).


#15

Ibu pergi ke pasar setiap hari

#mother go to market every day
#mother goes to the market everyday


#16

Ibu pergi ke pasar tadi pagi

#mother go to market this morning
#mother went to the market this morning


#17

Ibu pergi ke pasar sebentar malam

#mother go to market this evening
#mother went to the market this evening


#Time markers can precede or follow parts of the day. 
#Tenty four hour time markers in Indonesian are:

#ini 'this'
#tadi 'this (past)'
#sebentar 'this (future)'
#nanti 'future'


#Ini 'this' can mean past, present or future within twenty four time.


#18

pagi ini

#morning this
#this morning 

#Now, present; when it is said at the time of speaking.
#Past: when it is said in the afternoon or 
#in the evening.


#19

siang ini

#noon this
#this noon

#Now, present; when it is said at the time of speaking.
#Past: when it is said in the afternoon or 
#in the evening.
#Future: when it is said in the morning.


#20

malam ini

#night this
#tonight

#Now, present; when it is said at the time of speaking.
#Future: when it is said in the morning.

#Tadi 'past', sebentar 'in a moment', nanti 'later' are obvious.
#They cannot mean now or the time when the utterance is made.


#21

tadi malam

#this night
#last night


#22

tadi sore

#this afternoon
#this afternoon


 
#Indonesians may also say:


#23

sore tadi

#afternoon this
#this afternoon

#The meaning is the same as (22).


#24

pagi tadi

#morning this
#this morning


#But Indonesians do not say (25):


#Ungrammatical:

#25

malam tadi (0! 0 0 0)

#night this
#last night


#26

sebentar malam

#this night
#tonight


#27

nanti sore

#this afternoon
#this afternoon


#Ungrammatical:


#28

malam sebentar (0! 0 0 0)

#night this
#tonight

#Sebentar cannot follow parts of the day.



#Time markers:


#setiap 'every'
#lalu 'ago'
#depan 'next'


#Setiap precedes names of the days.


#29

setiap hari Senin  

#every day Monday
#every Monday


#Lalu and depan follow names of the days.


#30

hari senin lalu

#day Monday past
#last Monday


#31

Kamis depan

#Thursday next
#next Thursday


#32


Minggu depan

#week next
#next week


#33

Hari Minggu depan

#day Sunday next
#next Sunday


#The word Minggu has two meanings 'Sunday' and 'week. The difference
#is Minggu 'Sunday' always begins with capital letter M and is preceded
#by hari 'day' whereas minggu 'week' cannot be preceded by hari 'day'.


#The order of setiap, lalu and depan cannot be reversed.


#Ungrammatical:

#34

hari Senin setiap (0! 0 0 0)

#day MOnday every
#every MOnday


#Ungrammatical:


#35

lalu hari senin (0! 0 0 0)

#past day Monday past
#last Monday


#Ungrammatical:


#36

depan hari Minggu (0! 0 0 0)

#next day Sunday  
#next Sunday


#Temporal adjuncts: months, years, times of day, reduplication of parts of day 


#This documents presents:
#Names of the months
#Years
#Months, years and their parts
#Phrases containing specific times and temporal time markers 
#Time markers referring to specific days before or after the present 
#Reduplication of parts of the day


#Names of the months:

#Januari 'January'
#Februari, Pebruari  'February'
#Maret 'March'
#April 'April'
#Mei 'May'
#Juni 'June'
#Juli 'July'
#Agustus 'August'
#September 'September'
#Oktober 'October'
#November, Nopember 'November'
#Desember 'December'


#Names of the months are preceded by bulan 'month'.

#1

bulan Januari

#month January
#January

#2

Mereka tiba  bulan Desember

#3PL arrive month December
#The arrived in December



#Years

#Cardinal number is used to express the name of the year.


#3

Dua ribu sembilan

#Two thousand nine
#Two thousand and nine (2009)


#4

Seribu sembilan ratus sembilan puluh sembilan

#One-thousand nine hundred nine tens nine
#One thousand nine hundred and ninety nine (1999)


#5

Seribu sembilan ratus delapan puluh tujuh

#one-thousand nine hundred eight tens seven
#One thousand nine hundred and eighty seven (1999)


#6

Sembilan belas delapan puluh tujuh

#nine teens eight tens seven
#Nineteen eighty seven (1987)


#Puluh 'decade' may be omitted.


#7

Sembilan belas delapan tujuh 

#nine teens eight seven
#Nineteen eighty seven (1987)


#Dates


#Dates use cardinal numbers and they are usually preceded by  
#tanggal 'date'.


#8

tanggal empat

#date four
#fourth

#Sometimes people say tanggal 'date', bulan 'month' and tahun 'year'. 
#It occurs   mostly in formal writing. 


#9

Tanggal sepuluh bulan Juni tahun dua ribu tiga

#date ten month June year two thousand three
#Tenth of June two thousand three (10 June 2003)

#In informal contexts bulan 'month', and tahun 'year' may be omitted 
#but tanggal 'date' must remain.


#10

Saya akan datang tanggal sepuluh Juni dua ribu tiga
 
#1SG will come date ten June two thousand three
#I will come on the tenth of June two thousand three


#Tanggal may be omitted but people rarely do that. Sentence 10 is much 
#preferred to sentence 11 below.


#11

Saya akan datang sepuluh Juni dua ribu tiga

#1SG will come ten June two thousand three
#I will come on the tenth of June two thousand three


#Months, years and their parts


#Time marker  which indicates part of the specific time:


#awal 'beginning'
#pertengahan 'middle'
#akhir 'end'


#12

awal tahun

#beginning year
#Beginning of the year


#13

akhir bulan

#end year
#End of the year


#14

pertengahan minggu ini

#per-middle-AN week this
#middle of this week



#Phrases containing specific times and temporal time markers 


#Phrase with hari 'day', minggu 'week' , bulan 'month', and tahun 'year' can combine with ini 'this'.

#They can also combine with:

#lalu 'past'
#depan 'next'
#akan datang 'next'


#15

tahun lalu

#year past
#last year


#Example 15 can occur with numbers. 


#16

tiga tahun lalu

#three year past
#three years ago


#17

minggu depan

#week next
#next week


#Ungrammatical:


#18

tiga minggu depan (0! 0 0 0)

#three week next
#three coming weeks


#19

minggu yang akan datang

#week REL will come
#next week, the coming week


#20

tiga minggu yang akan datang

#three week REL will come
#three coming weeks


#21

beberapa minggu yang akan datang

#few week REL will come
#a few coming weeks 


#22

beberapa tahun lalu

#few year past
#a few years ago


#23

beberapa bulan yang lalu

#few month REL past
#a few months ago


#24

beberapa bulan setelah ……

#few month after .....
#a few months after


#25

beberapa tahun sebelum ……

#few year before
#a few years before .....


#26

dua minggu kemudian

#two week later
#two weeks later



#Time markers referring to specific days before or after the present. 


#kemarin 'yesterday'
#kemarin dulu 'the day before yesterday'
#besok 'tomorrow'
#lusa ' the day after tomorrow'


#These time markers are optionally followed by parts 
#of the day:


#27

kemarin pagi

#yesterday morning
#yesterday morning


#28

besok sore

#tomorrow afternoon
#tomorrow afternoon


#29

besok lusa

#tomorrow the.day.after.tomorrow
#the day after tomorrow


#Nanti and tadi indicate past or future within the 24 hour period.
 

#tadi malam, malam tadi 'last night'
#tadi pagi, pagi tadi 'this morning'
#nati sore, sore nanti 'this evening'

#not possible: 

#Ungrammatical:


#30

nanti pagi

#FUT morning
#this morning

#tadi is used after the period of the day referred to is past; 
#nanti if the period of the day has not come yet.


#Reduplication of parts of the day


#pagi-pagi 'early in the morning'
#siang-siang 'early in the day'
#sore-sore 'late in the day'
#malam-malam 'late at night'


#31

Mereka bangun pagi-pagi 

#3PL wake up early.in.the.morning
#They woke up early in the morning

#32

Nanti kalian datang siang-siang saja!

#later 2PL come early.in.the.day just
#You just come later early in the day


#33

Fotonya diambil sore-sore pada hari Minggu

#photo-3SG.POSS DI-take late.in.the.day in day Sunday
#His photo was taken late in the day on Sunday


#34

Jakarta sering diguyur hujan sore-sore

#Jakarta often DI-water rain late.in.the.day
#Jakarta is often watered by rain late in the day





#Temporal adjuncts: prepositional phrases indicating specific time, phrases indicating relative time 


#This documents presents:

#Prepositional phrases indicating specific time
#Phrases indicating relative time


#Prepositional phrases indicating specific time


#Two prepositions which frequently occur in front of
#specific times in Indonesian are prepositions pada and
#di 'at, in, on'.
#Pada and di precede  noun phrases indicating specific time


#1

PP: di awal tahun

#in beginning year
#at the beginning of the year


#2

PP: di akhir bulan

#in end month
#at the end of the month


#3

PP: di  hari Minggu pagi

#in day Sunday morning
#On Sunday morning



#Preposition pada can replace di in examples 1-3.  
#However preposition di cannot replace pada in examples 4 and
#5 below.


#4

PP: pada tanggal empat

#in date four
#on the fourth


#5

Kuliah mulai pada tanggal empat bulan  Januari

#Lecture begin in date four month January
#The lectures begin on the fourth of January


#Ungrammatical:


#6

Kuliah mulai di tanggal empat bulan  Januari (0! 0 0 0)

#Lecture begin in date four month January
#The lectures begin on the fourth of January


#Preposition pada may be omitted from example 5.


#7


Kuliah mulai tanggal 4 Januari

#Lecture begin date four January
#The lectures begin on the fourth of January



#Other prepositions:

#sebelum 'before'
#sesudah 'after'
#menjelang 'approaching, towards'
#sekitar 'about, around'


#8

Kamu harus pergi sebelum jam makan siang

#2SG must go before hour eat noon
#You must go before lunch time


#9

Konstruksi proyek ini  akan selesai menjelang akhir tahun

#construction project this will finish approaching end year
#This project construction will finish by the end of the year


#10

Presiden akan tiba sekitar jam dua belas siang

#president will arrive around two teens noon
#The president will arrive about twelve noon




#Phrases indicating relative time


#The following adjuncts of time indicate time relative to the present
#and or to some other event.

#sekarang 'now'
#kini 'now, nowadays'
#dulu, dahulu 'earlier, previously'
#kemudian 'afterwards'
#akhir-akhir ini 'recently'
#baru-baru ini 'recently'
#mula-mula 'at first'
#akhirnya 'finally'
#sebentar lagi ' in a moment'
#tadi 'recently, a short while ago'
#nanti 'soon, shortly'
#kelak 'later'


#sekarang 'now'

#Sekarang 'now' can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.


#11

sekarang mereka akan melakukan itu

#now 3PL will ME-do-KAN that
#They will do that now


#12

mereka sekarang  akan melakukan itu

#3PL now will ME-do-KAN that
#They will do that now


#13

mereka akan melakukan itu sekarang 

#3PL will ME-do-KAN that now 
#They will do that now



#kini 'now, nowadays'

#Kini 'now' can occur before or after the subject but cannot occur
#at the end of the sentence.


#14

kini dia datang kembali tepat di malam natal 

#now 3SG come back exactly in night Christmas
#Now he comes back exactly on Christmas night


#15

dia kini datang kembali tepat di malam natal 

#3SG now come back exactly in night Christmas
#Now he comes back exactly on Christmas night


#Ungrammatical:


#16

dia datang kembali tepat di malam natal kini (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG come back exactly in night Christmas now 
#Now he comes back exactly on Christmas night


#17

Kini dia harus diam

#nowadays 3SG must quiet
#Nowadays he must be quiet


#18

Dia kini memeluk agama Islam

#3SG now ME-hold religion Moslem
#He has Moslem faith now



#dulu, dahulu 'earlier, previously'


#Dulu, dahulu 'earlier, previously' can occur before or after the subject 
#but cannot occur at the end of the sentence.


#19

Dahulu dia selalu katakan apa yang dia pikirkan

#previously 3SG always say-KAN what REL 3SG think-KAN
#Earlier he always said what he thought


#20

dia dahulu selalu katakan apa yang dia pikirkan

#3SG previously always say-KAN what REL 3SG think-KAN
#Earlier he always said what he thought


#Ungrammatical:


#21

dia selalu katakan apa yang dia pikirkan dahulu (0! 0 0 0)

#3SG always say-KAN what REL 3SG think-KAN previously 
#Earlier he always said what he thought


#Sentence 21 may be grammatical but its meaning is different
#from 21. Observe 22.


#22

dia selalu katakan apa yang dia pikirkan dahulu  

#3SG always say-KAN what REL 3SG think-KAN previously 
#he always said what he thought earlier


#23


Kenapa ayah dahulu tidak rajin-rajin sekolah supaya bisa beli mobil 

#why father early NEG diligent-REDUP school so.that can buy car
#Why was father not diligent in going to school a long time ago so (he) could buy a car


#24

Dahulu ayah begitu bangga menceritakan bagaimana dia menangkap pencuri

#early father so pround MEN-tell.story-KAN how 3SG catch thief
#a long time ago father was so proud of telling how he caught a thief


#25

Dulu kami pernah tinggal di sini

#early 1PL.EXCL ever live in here
#We used to live here previously


#26

kami dulu telah salah memberi informasi tentang keramik 

#1PL.EXCL earlier already wrong MEN-give information about ceramics
#We wrongly gave information about ceramics earlier


#Sentence 27 shows that when dulu is placed at the end of the sentence
#its meaning is different from 25 and 26.


#27

Mereka akan berdoa dulu 

#3PL will BER-pray early
#They will pray first



#kemudian 'afterwards'


#Kemudian 'afterwards' can occur before or after the subject 
#but cannot occur at the end of the sentence. 



#28

Kemudian saya bertemu dengan temannya tetangga saya

#afterwards 1SG BER-meet with friend-3SG.POSS neighbour 1SG
#I then met my neighbour's friend  


#29

Saya kemudian mencoba untuk memilih UGM lewat jalur UMPTN

#1SG afterwards MEN-try to ME-choose UGM via route UMPTN
#I then try to choose UGM by UMPTN route

#UGM: Universitas Gajah Mada 'Gajah Mada University'.
#UMPTN: Ujian Masuk Perguruan Tinggi Negeri 'State Universities Entrance Test'.


#30

Voyager 2 melanjutkan penelitian sistem Saturnus satu tahun kemudian

#Voyager 2 ME-continue-KAN PEN-search-AN system Saturn satu year afterwards  
#Voyager 2 continued the resarch about Saturn system a year later



#akhir-akhir ini 'recently'


#Akhir-akhir ini 'recently' can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.


#31

Akhir-akhir ini, isu tentang bangkitnya gerakan-gerakan Islam garis keras semakin menarik perhatian

#recently,issues about raise-NYA move-AN-REDUP Moslem line hard increasingly MEN-attract PER-heart-AN
#Recently,issues about the raise of the hardline Moslem movements have increasingly attracted attention



#32

isu tentang bangkitnya gerakan-gerakan Islam garis keras akhir-akhir ini semakin menarik perhatian

#issues about raise-NYA move-AN-REDUP Moslem line hard recently increasingly MEN-attract PER-heart-AN
#Recently, issues about the raise of the hardline Moslem movements have increasingly attracted attention


#33

isu tentang bangkitnya gerakan-gerakan Islam garis keras  semakin menarik perhatian akhir-akhir ini

#issues about raise-NYA move-AN-REDUP Moslem line hard increasingly MEN-attract PER-heart-AN recently 
#Recently, issues about the raise of the hardline Moslem movements have increasingly attracted attention



#34

Akhir-akhir ini Ayah sering pergi ke Banjarmasin

#rencently father often go to Banjarmasin
#Father often goes to Banjarmasin recently


#35

Dia bertingkah begitu aneh akhir-akhir ini

#3SG BER-atitude so strange recently
#He acted so strange recently



#baru-baru ini 'recently'


#baru-baru ini 'recently' can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.


#36

Indonesia baru-baru ini meluncurkan produk perlindungan kesehatan bagi usia 45-69 

#Indonesian recently ME-launch-KAN product PER-protect-AN KE-health-AN for age 45-69 tahun
#Indonesia recently launched a health insurance product for 45-60 years old (people).


#37

baru-baru ini Indonesia meluncurkan produk perlindungan kesehatan bagi usia 45-69 

#recently Indonesian ME-launch-KAN product PER-protect-AN KE-health-AN for age 45-69 tahun
#Indonesia recently launched a health insurance product for 45-60 years old (people).



#mula-mula 'at first'


#Mula-mula 'at first' can occur before or after the subject 
#but cannot occur at the end of the sentence. 



#38

mula-mula kitab itu dibaca kata demi kata  

#at.first book that DI-read word by word
#At first the book was read word by word


#39

kitab itu mula-mula  dibaca kata demi kata  

#book at.first  that DI-read word by word
#At first the book was read word by word


#Ungrammatical:

#40

kitab itu dibaca kata demi kata mula-mula (0! 0 0 0) 

#book that DI-read word by word at.first 
#At first the book was read word by word



#41

Nama Papua mula-mula dipakai pelaut Portugis Antonio d'Abreau 

#name Papua at.first DI-use PE-sea Portuguese Antonio d'Abreau
#The name of Papua was first used by Portuguese sailor Antonio d'Abreau




#akhirnya 'finally'

#Akhirnya 'finally' can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.  


#42

Akhirnya dia datang juga

#finally 3SG come too
#Finally he came too


#43

dia akhirnya datang juga

#3SG finally come too
#Finally he came too


#44

dia datang juga akhirnya 

#3SG come too finally
#Finally he came too



#sebentar lagi ' in a moment'

#sebentar lagi 'in a moment' can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.  


#44

Ayah sebentar lagi pulang

#faher in.a.moment come.home
#Father will come home in a moment


#45

Sebentar lagi ayah pulang

#in.a.moment faher come.home
#Father will come home in a moment


#46

ayah pulang sebentar lagi 

#faher come.home in.a.moment 
#Father will come home in a moment



#tadi 'recently, a short while ago'

#Tadi can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.


#47

Kami tadi sudah bertemu dengan bapak gubernur 

#1PL.EXCL a.short.while.ago already BER-meer with sir governor
#We have just met the governor a short while ago


#48

Tadi mereka makan tiga mangkuk bakso

#a.short.while.ago 3PL eat three cup soup
#They ate three cups of soup a short while ago


#nanti 'soon, shortly'


#Nanti can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.


#49

Kamu nanti pasti akan main juga

#2SG soon certainly will play too
#You will certainly play soon too
 

#kelak 'later'

#Kelak can occur before or after the subject or at the end of
#the sentence.



#50

Kelak mereka akan membutuhkan rumah itu

#later 3PL will MEN-need-KAN house that
#They will need that house later



#51

Akankah dia kelak menjadi presiden Indonesia periode 1999-2004?

#will-Quest 3SG later MEN-become president Indonesia period 1999-2004?
#Will she later become Indonesian president for the period of 1999-2004?

#Adverbial sentence linkers indicating a connection bewteen two sentences 


#Sentence linkers connect two sentences and indicate the kind of connection
#that exists between the two sentences (Sneddon:  357).

#There are a great number of sentence linkers that indicate different kinds
#of relationships between two sentences.

#In this testfile we present some of the common linkers in Indonesian.

#The position of a linker is usually at the beginning of the sentence.
#However, it can also be placed within the main clause of the sentence.


#Linkers indicating an addition


#lagi pula 'further, moreover, what's more'


#1

Tapi ini mungkin yang terbaik untuknya, lagi pula dia masih muda, dan ini mungkin jalan yang bisa membuat dia bisa mendapatkan seseorang yang terbaik untuknya

#but this perhaps REL TER-good for-3SG, moreover 3SG still young,
#But perhaps this is what is best for him, moreover he is still young,


#and this perhaps road REL can MEN-make 3SG can MEN-get-KAN one-CLASS REL TER-good for-3SG
#and this is perhaps the road that can make him get the best person for him 



#di samping itu 'besides that'


#2

Menurut Dekan, pendirian RSH Prof. Soeparwi yang berlokasi di Sekip dimaksudkan untuk memberikan pelayanan kesehatan terbaik, baik bagi hewan kesayangan maupun ternak. Di samping itu, sekaligus juga sebagai penunjang fakultas di bidang pendidikan, penelitian, dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat.


#MEN-follow dean, PEN-stand-AN RSH Prof. Soeparwi REL BER-locate in Sekip DI-intend-KAN to MEN-give-KAN PE-serve-AN TER-good,
#According to the dean, the establishment or Prof Soeparwi Vetenary which is located at Sekip is intended to give the best health service,

#good for animal KE-love-AN and cattle. Besides that, SEKALIGUS also as PE-suport faculty in field PEN-educate-AN,
#both for pets and cattles. Besides that, it also functions as a support facility for faculty's training, 
#PEN-search-AN, and PEN-serve-AN to community
#research, and service for the community.

#Source: http://www.vet-klinik.com/Berita-Lainnya/UGM-Dirikan-Rumah-Sakit-Hewan-Prof.-Soeparwi.html


#juga 'also, moreover, in addition'

#Juga can occur at the beginning of a sentence/clause to introduce an additional
#piece of information or a new point in an argument.


#3

Juga, saya setuju kalau dia yang mengerjakan tugas itu.

#In addition, 1SG agree if 3SG REL MEN-do-KAN task that.
#In addition, I agree if he is the one that will do the task.


#selain itu 'besides that, apart from that'


#4

#Context:
#di Jawa Tengah PEP memasok gas untuk industri di Semarang dan sekitar Pantura.
#in Java Central PEP ME-supply gas for industry in Semarang and around Pantura.
#In Central Java PEP supplied gas for industries in Semarang and around Pantura. 


Selain itu, PEP memasok gas ke PLTGU Tanjung Batu Kaltim dari sumber gas TAC Semco sebesar 20 MMSCFD dan untuk own use VICO sebesar 5-10 MMSCFD.

#Besides that, PEP ME-supply gas to PLTGU Tanjung Batu East.Kalimantan from source gas TAC Semco
#Besides that, PEP supplied gas to PLTGU Tanjung Batu East Kalimantan from TAC Semco gas resource

#SE-big 20 MMSCFD and for own use VICO  SE-big 5-19 MMSCFD
#amount 20 MMSCFD and for VICO own use which amount 5-19 MMSCFD


#Source: http://www.pertamina.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4658&Itemid=33



#selanjutnya 'further'


#5

#Context: 
#Setelah itu di daerah aman, tanah tersebut dibersihkan dari zat pencemar.
#after that in region safe, soil TER-mention DI-clean-KAN from substance PEN-pollute.
#After that in the secured region, the soil was cleaned from polluted substances.

#Caranya yaitu, tanah tersebut disimpan di bak/tanki yang kedap, kemudian
#way-3SG is, soil TER-mention DI-store in tank REL ......, then
#The way to do is, the soil is stored in the tank which......, then

#zat pembersih dipompakan ke bak/tangki tersebut. 
#substance PEN-clean DI-pump-KAN to tank TER-mention. 
#the cleaning substance is pumped to the tank. 

Selanjutnya zat pencemar dipompakan keluar dari bak yang kemudian diolah dengan instalasi pengolah air limbah.

#Further, substance PEN-pollute DI-pump-KAN out from tank REL then DI-process with installation PEN-process water waste.
#Further, the polluting substance is pumped out from the tank which is then processed with waste water processing installation


#bahkan 'moreover, even'


#6

#Context:
#Hal ini tidak hanya terjadi di negara miskin dengan tingkat penghasilan penduduk yang rendah 
#matter this NEG only TER-become in nation poor with level PEN-result-AN people REL low
#This thing does not only happen in poor nations with low income people

#seperti Indonesia, tetapi hal yang sama juga dirasakan 
#such.as Indonesia, but matter REL same also DI-feel-KAN
#such as Indonesia, but the same thing was also experienced

#oleh penduduk negara maju seperti Amerika Serikat. 
#by poeple nation advanced such.as America united.
#by advanced nations people such as the United States.


Bahkan dalam salah satu buku yang terbit akhir tahun 2005 lalu ada disebutkan bahwa jutaan penduduk Amerika bangkrut setiap tahunnya gara-gara tidak mampu membiayai biaya kesehatannya.

#even in mistake one book REL publish end year 2005 ago be DI-mention-KAN
#Even in one of the books which were published at the end of 2005 it was mentioned


#that million-AN people America bancrupt each year-NYA because NEG able
#that millions of Americans are bancrupt each year because (they) are not able


#MEN-fund-i fee KE-health-AN-3POSS
#to fund thier health costs.


#Source: http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:6hmVKqYer3kJ:rumahmadu.com/2008/01/bahkan-berobat-pun-ada-tuntunannya.html+bahkan&cd=18&hl=en&ct=clnk&lr=lang_id



#apalagi 'moreover, besides


#7

#Context:
#Saya membaca berita yang mengejutkan mengenai 'Pencurian Motor yang dilakukan 
#1SG MEN-read news REL MEN-surprise-KAN MEN-touch-I 'PEN-steal-AN motor REL DI-do-KAN
#I read a shocking news about a stolen motorbike which was stolen

#oleh Caleg untuk DPRD DKI'. 
#by legislative.canddidate for DPRD DKI'.
#by a parliamentary candidate for DPRD DKI. 

Wah, baru jadi caleg sudah nekat curi motor, apalagi sudah jadi wakil rakyat?

# Hmm...,just only being a candidate already do steal a motorbike, what's more if already become representative people?
#(I said to myself) Hmm... (He) is just being a candidate (at this stage) but (he) did steal a bike, what's more if (he) is already elected member of parliament?


#Source: http://kupalima.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/baru-jadi-caleg-sudah-tertangkap-mencuri-motor-apalagi/



#malah, malahan 'moreover, what's more' 


#8

#Context:
#Desakan penggantian Kepala Kepolisian Daerah (Polda) Sumatera Utara (Sumut) terus bergulir. 
#insist-AN PEN-replace-AN head KE-police-AN region Sumatera North continue BER-roll. 
#The force to replace the head of regional police of North Sumatera keeps rolling. 

Malahan ada penilaian, jika Kapolda Sumut tidak diganti, berarti Kepala Polri tidak sensitif.

#Moreover be PE-value-AN, if regional.head.of.police north.Sumatera NEG DI-repalce
#MOreover, there is a remark that if the head of the rrgional police of North Sumatera is not replaced

#BER-means head Republic.of.Indonesian.State.Police NEG sensitive
#(then) this shows that the head of Indonesian State Police is not sensitive. 

#Source: http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/02/04/133146/1079388/10/kalau-tak-ganti-kapolda-sumut,-kapolri-tidak-sensitif




#Linkers indicating contrast


#Namun, namun demikian 'despite that, nevertheless'

#9

Kendati dinilai menguntungkan bagi masyarakat di beberapa negara, namun Indonesia tidak serta merta mengambil keputusan serupa meskipun dalam beberapa tahun ini sudah mengalami kesulitan pasokan BBM untuk pembangkit listrik.

#although DI-value MEN-benefit-KAN for community in some nation,
#Although it is considered bringing benefits to communities in several nations,

#however Indonesia NEG accompany-REDUP MEN-take KE-decide-AN one-kind
#however, Indonesia did not immediately take the same decision

#although in some year this already MEN-nature-I KE-difficult-AN
#although during some of these years (Indonesia) already faced  difficulties

#supply-AN oil.and.gas for PEN-rise electricity
#in supplying oil and gas for Electricity generators.


#Source: www.technologyindonesia.com/download.php?file=pltn.pdf -


#10

#Context:
#Fotografi pemandangan alam secara umum selalu ditampilkan dengan penuh warna 
#photography PEN-view-AN nature generally always DI-show-KAn with full colour
#A general photography of nature is always shown with full colours


#sehingga mempesona yang melihatnya. 
#so MEN-attract REL ME-see-3SG. 
#so it attracts those who see it. 
 

Namun demikian sesungguhnya fotografi pemandangan alam tak selalu harus disajikan secara berwarna.

#Despite that SE-indeed-NYA photography PEN-view-AN nature not always must DI-present-KAN as BER-colour

#Despite that, actually the natural view photography should not always be presented colourfully

#Source: http://indophoto.multiply.com/notes/item/47



#walaupun demikian, namun begitu 'despite that, nevertheless'


#11

#Context:
#Di Amerika Serikat berlaku sistem Konsesi (Royalty and Tax) dimana 
#in America united BER-valid system concession (Royalty and Tax) where
#Concession (Royalty and Tax) system applies in the United States where
 
#peranan negara dalam  pengelolaan migas lebih sedikit daripada sistem PSC (Production Sharing Contract).#role-AN state in PEN-manage-AN oil.and.gas more little from than system PSC (Production Sharing Contract).
#state role in oil and gas management a little more than the Production Sharing Contract system.


Walaupun demikian Senat Amerika Serikat membatalkan kemenangan CNOOC  (BUMN Cina) untuk mengakusisi Unocal demi keamanan nasional. 

#Despite that Senate America United MEN-cancell-KAN KE-victory-AN CNOOC (BUMN China) for MEN-acquisite Unocal 
#Despite that, the United States of America senate cancelled the victory of CNOOC (Chinese Company) to acquisite Unocal

#for.the.sake.of National Security
#for the sake of the national security

#Source: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/IndoEnergy/message/6321


#The sentence linkers below are commonly used for indicating contrast.

#meskipun demikian, meskipun begitu 'despite that, nevertheless'
#biarpun demikian, biarpun begitu 'despite that, nevertheless'
#tetapi, akan tetapi 'but, nevertheless, still'
#sebaliknya 'on the contrary, on the other hand'
#malah, malahan, bahkan, 'instead, on the contrary'
#bagaimanapun (juga) 'however that might be'



#12

Anak perempuan suka warna merah cerah, sebaliknya anak laki-laki suka warna gelap

#child female like colour red bright, on the other hand child male-REDUP like colur dark
#The girls like bright red colours, on the other hand, the boys like dark colours.


#13

Kami tidak melawan mereka, malah kami membantu.

#1PL.EXCL NEG ME-oppose 3PL, on.the.contrary 1PL.EXCL MEN-help
#We did not oppose them, instead we helped (them).

#14

Walaupun dia keturunan Cina, tetapi dia tidak bisa berbahasa Cina.

#although 3SG KE-descend-AN China, but 3SG NEG can BER-language China
#Although he is a chinese descent, he cannot speak Chinese

 

#Linkers indicating a consequence

#akibatnya 'as a result'
#alhasil, walhasil 'the result is, consequently'
#jadi 'therefore'
#maka ' consequently, thus, so'
#maka dari itu 'as a result of that'
#makanya 'consequently, no wonder'
#oleh karena itu 'therefore, because of that'
#oleh sebab itu 'therefore, because of that'


#15

#Context:
#Tono selalu mengkonsumsi narkoba. 
#Tono always MEN-consume narcotics.and.drugs. 

Akibatnya, dia sering sakit-sakitan.

#as.a.result 3SG often sick-REDUP
#As a result, he often gets sick.


#16

#Context:
#Hari ini Pak Makrus sakit. 
#day this sir Makrus ill. 
#Today Mr Makrus is ill. 

Oleh karena itu pelajaran Biologi ditunda sampai minggu depan.

#Therefore PEL-learn-AN Biology DI-cancell until week front
#Therefore, the biology lesson was postponed until next week


#17

#Context:
#Dia sering cepat marah. 
#3SG ofteh quick angry. 
#He gets angry easily. 

Makanya kamu harus bicara baik-baik dengan dia.

#Consequently, you must speak good-REDUP with 3SG
#Therefore, you should speak carefully with him

#18

Jadi, kalau kamu mau menjadi kaya, sebaiknya kamu belajar menghemat dari sekarang.

#so, if 2SG want MEN-become rich, SE-good-NYA 2SG BEL-learn  MEN-save from now 
#Therefore, if you want to become rich, it is better that you learn how to save from now.



#Linkers indicating an example

#misalnya 'for example, for instance'
#umpamanya 'for example, for instance'

#19

Banyak tanaman tropik yang dikoleksi di taman botani ini misalnya, kelapa, pisang, dan lain-lain.

#many plan tropical REL DI-collect in garden botany this for.example, coconut, banana, and other-REDUP
#Many tropical plants are collected in this botanical garden, for example, coconut, banana, and others.


#20

#Context:
#Ada beberapa pulau besar di Indonesia. 
#be several island big in Indonesia. 
#There are several big islands in Indonesia. 

Umpamanya, Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, dan Jawa adalah pulau-pulau besar di Indonesia.

#For instance, Sumatera, Borneo, Celebes, and Java be island-REDUP big in Indonesia
#For instance, Sumatera, Borneo, Celebes, and Java are big islands in Indoesia.


#Linkers indicating a time sequence

#kemudian 'afterwards, later'
#sesudah itu 'after that'
#sebelumnya, sebelum itu 'before that, beforehand'
#sementara itu 'in the mean time, at the same time'
#lalu, lantas 'then'

#21

#Context:
#Kami berhenti sebentar di Bogor. 
#1PL.EXCL BER-stop for.a.while in Bogor. 
#We stopped for a while in Bogor. 

Sesudah itu kami melanjutkan perjalanan kami ke Jakarta.

#After that 1PL.EXCL ME-continue-KAN PER-walk-AN 1PL.EXCL to Jakarta
#After that we continued our trip to Jakarta.

#22

Sementara kami masih dalam perjalanan, rakyat di desa itu telah bersiap-siap menyambut kami.

#in.the.mean.time 1PL.EXCL still in PER-trip-AN, people in village that already BER-ready-REDUP MEN-welcome 1PL.EXCL
#While we were still on our way, the people in the village had already been ready to welcome us


#23

#Context:
#Pak Darmo tinggal di Bali. 
#sir Darmo live in Bali. 
#Mr Darmo lived in Bali. 

Sebelumnya dia tinggal di Medan.

#Before-nya 3SG live in Medan
#Before that he lived in Medan.

#24

Sebelum Pak Darmo tinggal di Bali, dia tinggal di Medan

#before sir Darmo live in Bali, 3SG live in Medan
#Before Mr Darmo lived in Bali, he lived in Medan


#Ungrammatical:

#25

Sebelum Pak Darmo tinggal di Bali, tinggal di Medan (0! 0 0 0)

#before sir Darmo live in Bali, live in Medan
#Before Mr Darmo lived in Bali, he lived in Medan

#References:

#Sneddon, James, N.INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar, Roudledge, London,
#1966 (pp.357-361 ) 


#Adjuncts of location


#The adjuncts of location consist of prepositional phrases.  Prepositional
#phrases are discussed in files 6 and 7. 

#This document presents examples of prepositional phrases indicating
#instrument and means, accompaniment, beneficiary, reason, comparison,
#exception and subject matter.


#Instrument and means

#Preposition dengan is used to indicate instrument and means.


#1

Ia memukul anak itu dengan rotan

#3SG ME-hit child that with rattan
#He hit the child with a rattan stick


#2

Kami pergi dengan bis

#1PL.EXCL go with bus
#We go by bus


#The position of the adjunct can be at the beginning of the sentenc.


#3

Dengan kapak dia menebang pohon itu

#with axe 3SG MEN-cut tree that
#He cut the tree with an axe


#Accompaniment

#Prepositions bersama, beserta 'along with' and dengan 'with' are used
#to indicate accompaniment.


#4

Saya makan malam bersama keluarga Pak Tomo

#1SG eat evening along.with family sir Tomo
#I had dinner with Mr Tomo's family


#5

Anita tinggal di hotel dengan kekasihnya

#Anita live in hotel with lover-3SG.POSS
#Anita stayed in the hotel with her lover


#6

Pak Mandacan datang beserta keluarga

#sir Mandacan come along.with family
#Mr Mandacan came with his family


#Bersama can coocurs with dengan. Here the meaning of bersama is 
#'together'

#7

Kamu akan makan siang bersama dengan saya dan Anita

#2SG will eat afternoon together with 1SG and Anita
#You will have lunch together with me and Anita


#Beneficiary

#Prepositions untuk, bagi, buat 'for', and demi 'for, for the sake of' are
#used to indicate beneficiary.


#8

Sekolah ini dibangun untuk anak-anak yang berasal dari keluarga miskin

#school this DI-build for child-REDUP REL BER-origin from family poor
#The school was built for the children who came from poor families


#9

Ibu membuat kue buat saya

#mother meN-make cake for 1SG
#Mother made a cake for me


#10

Penyakit flu babi sangat berbahaya bagi semua orang

#PEN-sick flu pig very BER-danger for all person
#The swine flu disease is very dangerous for all people


#11

Kami meninggalkan kampung kami demi masa depan anak-anak 

#1PL.EXCL MEN-leave-KAN village 1PL.EXCL for.the.sake.of time front child-REDUP 
#We left our village for the sake of the children future

#12

Demi peningkatan sumberdaya manusia, banyak sekolah dan universitas dibangun

#for.the.sake.of PEN-level-AN resource human, many school and university DI-build
#For the sake of the human resources development, many schools and universities are established


#Reason

#Prepositions sebab, karena 'because', berkat 'thanks to, due to', and gara-gara
#'all because, all because of' are used to indicate reasons.


#13

Kristina sembuh karena obat itu

#Kristina recover.from.illness because medicine that
#Kristina recovered from her illness because of that medicine 


#14

Pertandingan sepak bola tidak dilaksanakan sebab hujan lebat

#PER-compete-AN kick ball NEG DI-implement-KAN because rain heavy
#The football match was not played because of heavy rain


#15 

Desa ini maju sekali berkat kerja keras kepala desa

#village this progress very thans.to work hard head village
#This village progressed very well due to the head of the village's hard work


#16

Berkat bantuan Ibu Dani saya bisa menyelesaikan pendidikan saya

#thanks.to help Mrs Dani 1SG can MEN-finish-KAN PEN-educate-AN 1SG
#Thanks to Mrs Dani I could complete my education


#17

Saya didenda tiga puluh ribu rupiah gara-gara tidak memakai helem

#1SG DI-fine three tens thousand rupiah all.because.of NEG ME-wear helmet
#I was fined thirty thousand rupiahs because of not wearing a helmet


#Gara-gara has an implicit meaning that somebody or something
#is to blame for what has happened (Quinn, 2001: 736).  


#18

Gara-gara main bola, baju Andi kotor semua

#Because play ball, cloth Andi dirty all
#Because he played football, Andi's clothes were all dirty


#Comparison

#Prepositions seperti, bagai, sebagaimana, bagaikan, ibarat, laksana indicate
#that the subject resembles some other person or thing in a characteristic 
#or manner of doing something (Sneddon, 1996:226).


#19

Dia bertanggung-jawab sebagaimana ayah dulu

#3SG BER-to.be.responsible like father a.long.time.ago
#He is responsible like father (was) a long time ago


#20

Gadis itu sangat cantik seperti bidadari

#girl that very beautiful like fairy
#That girl is very beautiful like a fairy


#21

Bagai seorang raja dia dikelilingi pengawal-pengawalnya

#like one-CLASS king 3SG DI-surround-i PEN-guard-REDUP-NYA
#Like a king he was surrounded by his guards


#22

Mereka melayani dia sebagai adik kandung mereka

#3PL ME-serve-i 3SG like younger.brother/sister of.the.same.mother 3PL
#They treated him/her like their own brother/sister from the same mother
 

#23

Tuhan mengasihi manusia ibarat matahari yang menyinari bumi.

#God MEN-love-i human like sun REL MEN-shine-i earth
#God loves the human beings like the sun which lights the earth


#24

Laksana seorang panglima Adam memimpin penyerangan terhadap pasukan pemberontak

#like one-CLASS commander Adam MEN-lead PEN-attack-AN towards troops PEN-rebel
#Like a commander Adam led the attack of rebel troops


#Exception

#Preposition kecuali 'except' indicates who or what was not involved or 
#included in the action. 

#25

Kantor-kantor pemerintah buka setiap hari kecuali hari Sabtu dan Minggu

#office-REDUP PEN-govern open each day except day Saturday and Sunday
#Government offices open everyday except Saturday and Sunday


#26

Kecuali anak itu semua boleh berangkat sekarang.

#Except child that all may leave now
#Except that child all of you may leave now


#Subject matter

#Preposition tentang 'about, concerning' is used to indicate concern of a particular
#subject. 

#Tentang is always placed at the end of the sentence.


#27

Kami belajar tentang sejarah penjajahan Belanda di Indonesia

#1PL.EXCL BER-study about history PEN-occupy-AN  Dutch in Indonesia
#We are learning about the history of Dutch's occupation in Indonesia


#28

#Ungrammatical:

Tentang sejarah masuknya Belanda ke Indonesia kami belajar (0! 0 0 0)

#about the history of Dutch's occupation in Indonesia we study
#We are learning about the history of Dutch's occupation in Indonesia




#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 736).



#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 225-7). 
                   








#Focusing Adjuncts


#Focusing adjuncts emphasise the most important thing involved in what is being 
#said (Sneddon, 1996:227).

#There are various kinds of focusing adjuncts such as limiters, additives, 
#adverb justru, and particles pun, lah and kah.

#This document only presents focusing adjuncts which Sneddon
#classified as limiters. 

#Limiters indicate that only the thing being said is the focus and nothing else.
#The limiters can precede or follow the focused item.

#The document discusses the following limiters.

#Hanya 'only, just'
#Cuma 'only, just'
#Semata-mata 'only, just, for no reason other than..'
#saja 'just, only'
#melulu 'just, only, nothing but, all you/they do is...'



#Hanya 'only, just'


#1

Kemarin saya hanya makan nasi

#yesterday 1SG only eat rice
#Yesterday I only ate rice


#Sneddon notes that limiters such as hanya, cuma, and semata-mata precede
#the predicate.
#In example (1) hanya 'only' precedes makan nasi 'eat rice'. Here eating rice
#receives emphasis.
#Hanya cannot be placed before the object nasi 'rice'. Observe (2):


#2

#Ungrammatical:

Kemarin saya makan hanya nasi (0! 0 0 0)

#yesterday 1SG eat only rice
#Yesterday I only ate rice


#Similar examples can be grammatical if (1) hanya nasi is placed at the beginning
#of the sentence, and (2) the relative marker yang is inserted immediately
#after hanya nasi 'only rice'. Observe example (3):


#3

Hanya nasi yang kemarin saya makan

#only rice REL yesterday 1SG eat
#It was only rice that I ate yesterday


#Other items in the sentence except the predicate also need the relative marker
#yang. In examples (4) and (5) below kemarin 'yesterday' and saya '1SG' get 
#focused.


#4

Hanya kemarin yang saya makan nasi

#only yesterday REL 1SG eat
#I was only yesterday that I ate rice


#5

Kemarin hanya saya yang makan nasi

#yesterday only 1SG REL eat rice
#I was only me who ate rice yesterday


#Sentences (3), (4) and (5) will be ungrammatical if the relative marker yang
#is removed.


#6

#Ungrammatical:

Hanya nasi kemarin saya makan (0! 0  0 0)

#only rice REL yesterday 1SG eat
#It was only rice that I ate yesterday


#7

#Ungrammatical:

Hanya kemarin saya makan nasi (0! 0 0 0)

#only yesterday REL 1SG eat
#It was only yesterday that I ate rice


#8

#Ungrammatical:

Kemarin hanya saya makan nasi (0! 0 0 0)

#yesterday only 1SG REL eat rice
#It was only me who ate rice yesterday



#More examples with hanya are illustrated in (9) to (13).
 

#9

Dia hanya mengunjungi candi Borobudur tahun lalu

#3SG only MEN-visit-i temple Borobudur year last
#He only visited Borobudur temple last year


#10

Hanya candi Borobudur yang dia kunjungi tahun lalu

#only temple Borobudur REL 3SG visit-i year last
#It was only Borobudur temple that he visited last year


#11

Hanya tahun lalu yang dia kunjungi candi Borobudur

#only year last REL 3SG visit-i temple Borobudur
#It was only last year that he visited Borobudur temple.


#12

Hanya dia yang mengunjungi candi Borobudur tahun lalu

#only 3SG REL MEN-visit-i temple Borobudur year last
#It was only him who visited Borobudur temple last year


#13

Hanya dia yang kunjungi candi Borobudur tahun lalu

#only 3SG REL visit-i temple Borobudur year last
#It was only him who visited Borobudur temple last year


#When other items are focused (except the predicate)
#and placed at the beginning of the sentence, the verbs with prefix MEN- 
#will have its base form plus any suffixes attached to the verb. See examples
#(10), (11), and (13). However, examples (12) and (13) show that when 
#the subject is the focus then the verb can retain prefix MEN- or can be in
#its base form.



#Cuma 'only, just'

#Cuma is informal. Hanya is its informal counterpart.
#Cuma follows the same pattern as hanya. Observe the following examples:


#14

Mereka cuma minum teh

#3PL only drink tea
#They only drank tea


#15

#Ungrammatical:

Mereka minum cuma teh (0! 0 0 0)

#3PL drink only tea
#They only drank tea


#16

Cuma teh yang mereka minum

#only tea REL 3PL drink
#It was only tea that they drank


#17

Cuma mereka yang minum teh

#only 3PL REL drink tea
#It was only them who drank tea


#18

#Ungrammatical:

Cuma teh mereka minum (0! 0 0 0)

#only tea REL 3PL drink
#It was only tea that they drank


#19

#Ungrammatical:

Cuma mereka minum teh (0! 0 0 0)

#only 3PL REL drink tea
#It was only them who drank tea
 


#Semata-mata 'only, just, for no reason other than..'

#Semata-mata is used when we want to emphasize that something is done for 
#one specific reason only and no other.  
#Semata-mata precedes the focused item.


#20

Evi menulis cerita itu semata-mata untuk memperoleh uang

#Evi MEN-write story that only for MEN-get money
#Evi wrote that story only to get some money


#21

Evi semata-mata menulis cerita itu untuk memperoleh uang
  
#Evi only MEN-write story that for MEN-get money
#Evi only wrote that story to get some money 


#Unlike hanya and cuma, semata-mata cannot precede other items in the sentence
#except the predicate and any particular reason that need a focused attention.


#22

#Ungrammatical:

Semata-mata Evi menulis cerita itu untuk memperoleh uang (0! 0 0 0)

#only Evi MEN-write story that for MEN-get money
#It was Evi who wrote that story to get some money


#23

#Ungrammatical:

Semata-mata Evi yang menulis cerita itu untuk memperoleh uang (0! 0 0 0)

#only Evi MEN-write story that for MEN-get money
#It was Evi who wrote that story to get some money


#24

#Ungrammatical:

Semata-mata cerita itu  Evi menulis untuk memperoleh uang (0! 0 0 0)

#only story that Evi MEN-write  for MEN-get money
#It was that story that Evi wrote to get some money


#25

#Ungrammatical:

Semata-mata cerita itu  yang Evi menulis untuk memperoleh uang (0! 0 0 0)

#only story that REL Evi MEN-write  for MEN-get money
#It was that story that Evi wrote to get some money

#Sentences (22) to (25) show that with or without relative marker yang the 
#sentences are ungrammatical.



#Saja 'just, only'

#Saja is used when we want to emphasise that we are talking about a certain
#person or thing and not someone or something else.


#Saja follows the focused item.


#26

Kemarin saya makan nasi saja

#yesterday 1SG eat rice only
#I just ate rice yesterday

#In example (26) the focus is on the fact that nothing else was eaten yesterday
#except rice.

#Saja can be placed immediately after kemarin 'yesterday', and saya '1SG'. Here
#the relative marker yang must also be inserted immediately after saja.


#27

Kemarin saja yang saya makan nasi

#yesterday only REL 1SG eat rice
#It was only yesterday that I ate rice


#28

Kemarin saya saja yang makan nasi

#yesterday 1SG only REL eat rice
#It was just me who ate rice yesterday


#29

Nasi saja yang kemarin saya makan

#rice only REL yesterday 1SG eat
#It was only rice that I ate yesterday


#The sentences will be ungrammatical if relative marker yang is removed.


#30

#Ungrammatical:

Kemarin saja saya makan nasi (0! 0 0 0)

#yesterday only 1SG eat rice
#It was only yesterday that I ate rice


#31

#Ungrammatical:

Kemarin saya saja makan nasi (0! 0 0 0)

#yesterday 1SG only eat rice
#It was just me who ate rice yesterday


#32

#Ungrammatical:

Nasi saja kemarin saya makan (0! 0 0 0)

#rice only REL yesterday 1SG eat
#It was only rice that I ate yesterday



#Melulu 'just, only, nothing but, all you/they do is...'


#Melulu is used when we want to emphasise that only one thing is being done
#(excluding everything else). 

#Melulu precedes the focused item.


#33

Tiap hari Yohana memikirkan uang melulu

#every day Yohana MEN-think-kan money all.you/they.do.is
#Everyday all Yohana thinks about is money


#34

#Ungrammatical:

Tiap hari Yohana memikirkan melulu uang (0! 0 0 0)

#every day Yohana MEN-think-kan all.you/they.do.is money 
#Everyday all Yohana thinks is money


#Combination of limiters.

#Sneddon states that the combination of hanya and saja gives additional emphasis.
#Our data show that it is not only hanya and saja that can combine to give additonal
#emphasis but also the combinations of different limiters such as cuma and saja,
#hanya and semata-mata, hanya and melulu, cuma and melulu, etc. Observe the 
#following examples:


#35

Dia hanya makan nasi saja

#3SG only eat rice only
#He ate nothing but rice


#36

Saya cuma mengunjungi candi Borobudur saja

#1SG only MEN-visit-i temple Borobudur only
#I only visited Borobudur temple


#37

Tiap hari Yohana hanya memikirkan uang melulu

#every day Yohana only MEN-think-kan money all.you/they.do.is
#Everyday all Yohana thinks about is money only


#38

Evi hanya menulis cerita itu semata-mata untuk memperoleh uang

#Evi only MEN-write story that for.no.reason.other.than for MEN-get money
#Evi just wrote that story  for no other reason than to get some money


#References:

#Quinn, George. the Learner's Dictionary of Today's Indonesian, Allen and Unwin,
#2001 (pp. 652-3, 747-8, 885, 1043, 1070-1).

#Sneddon, James, N. INDONESIAN: A Comprehensive Grammar,
#Roudledge, London, 1996 (pp. 227).